In-Text Citations, Reference Lists, and the 7th Edition Rules That Actually Matter
How to format in-text citations and reference list entries for books, journal articles, websites, and more — plus the changes APA 7th edition made, when page numbers are required, how DOIs work, and the errors that cost marks most often.
APA is the most-used citation style in psychology, education, sociology, nursing, and most of the social sciences. If you are studying in any of those fields, you will use it for almost every paper you submit. The rules are not complicated once you understand the logic. But they are precise — and the small things (italics in the wrong place, a missing DOI, the wrong author format) are the things that lose marks. This guide covers what you actually need to know, with examples you can use directly.
What This Guide Covers
How APA Works: The Author-Date System
APA uses an author-date citation system. Every time you use information from a source — whether you quote it directly or paraphrase it — you insert a brief citation in the text. That citation points to a full entry in your reference list at the end of the document.
The in-text citation is short: author’s last name and year of publication, in parentheses. That is it. The reference list gives the full details. Readers who want to find the source go to the reference list; readers who want to keep reading just see a brief tag and move on. That is the logic behind the system.
In-Text Citation
A brief tag — (Author, Year) — inserted in the text every time you use a source. For direct quotes, add a page number: (Author, Year, p. X). Points the reader to the full entry in your reference list.
Reference List
The full list of every source you cited, at the end of your paper. Labelled “References” — not “Bibliography” or “Works Cited.” Alphabetical by first author’s last name. Every in-text citation must have a matching entry here.
The Official Source
The authoritative guide is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition (2020). For quick reference, APA also maintains a free style website at apastyle.apa.org.
APA is standard in the US and widely used in Australia, Canada, and parts of Europe. In the UK, Harvard is often the default in social science departments — but many UK universities use APA, particularly in psychology and nursing. Check your department’s requirements. “Harvard” and “APA” are not the same style. They share the author-date structure but have different formatting rules throughout.
In-Text Citation Formats
There are two ways to place an APA in-text citation: parenthetical (at the end of the sentence) or narrative (worked into the sentence). Both are acceptable. Which you use depends on whether you want to emphasise the source or the information.
Parenthetical Citation
The author’s last name and year appear in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the full stop. Used when the information matters more than who said it. Most common format for paraphrases and summaries.
Example: Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent mental health conditions in the adult population (Kessler et al., 2005).Narrative Citation
The author’s name appears as part of the sentence, with the year in parentheses immediately after. Used when the author’s identity is relevant — for instance, when you are discussing a specific scholar’s argument, or comparing two researchers’ positions.
Example: Kessler et al. (2005) found that anxiety disorders affect approximately 18% of adults in any given year.Direct Quotation
Any time you use the exact words from a source, you need a page number (or equivalent locator) in addition to author and year. For sources with page numbers: p. for a single page, pp. for a range. For sources without page numbers: use paragraph number (para. 3), section heading, or timestamp for audio/video.
Example: The authors concluded that “social isolation remains the strongest predictor of relapse” (Brodsky & Loh, 2019, p. 114).Long Quotes (Block Quotations)
For quotes of 40 words or more, use a block quotation: start on a new line, indent the entire quote 0.5 inches, no quotation marks. The citation goes after the final punctuation of the quote, not before it.
Note: Block quotations are rare in most student papers. If you find yourself using them often, check whether you are over-quoting — APA style generally favours paraphrase over quotation.| Situation | In-Text Format | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Paraphrase, one author | (Last, Year) | (Smith, 2021) |
| Paraphrase, two authors | (Last & Last, Year) | (Smith & Jones, 2021) |
| Paraphrase, three or more authors | (First Author et al., Year) | (Smith et al., 2021) |
| Direct quote with page number | (Last, Year, p. X) | (Smith, 2021, p. 45) |
| Direct quote, page range | (Last, Year, pp. X–X) | (Smith, 2021, pp. 45–46) |
| No date available | (Last, n.d.) | (Smith, n.d.) |
| Organisation as author | (Organisation Name, Year) | (World Health Organization, 2022) |
| Two works by same author, same year | (Last, Yeara) and (Last, Yearb) | (Smith, 2021a) and (Smith, 2021b) |
| Narrative citation | Last (Year) | Smith (2021) argued that… |
In a parenthetical citation with two authors, use an ampersand: (Smith & Jones, 2021). In a narrative citation, use “and”: Smith and Jones (2021) found… This trips up a lot of students. The rule is simple: ampersand inside parentheses, “and” outside. The same applies in the reference list — use an ampersand between the last two authors.
Reference List: Structure and Rules
The reference list appears at the end of your paper on a new page. It is labelled “References” — centred, bold — not “Bibliography,” not “Works Cited.” Only sources you actually cited in the text go here. Not every source you read. Not sources you looked at but did not use.
Entries are sorted A–Z by the last name of the first author. For works with no author, sort by the first significant word of the title (ignore “A,” “An,” “The”). Multiple works by the same author go in chronological order, oldest first. Same author, same year: add a, b, c after the year — (2021a), (2021b) — and match these in the in-text citations.
Each entry uses a hanging indent: the first line is flush with the left margin, and subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches. Set this using your word processor’s paragraph formatting, not by manually pressing Tab. Manual tabs break when the document is reformatted.
The reference list is double-spaced, with no extra space between entries. This applies to student papers under APA 7th edition. Professional manuscripts submitted for publication follow the same rule. Do not add extra blank lines between entries — double-spacing is already applied to all lines.
Book titles, article titles, and chapter titles use sentence case in APA — only the first word, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns are capitalised. Journal names are an exception: they use title case (capitalise all major words) and are italicised. Getting this wrong is one of the most common APA formatting errors. “The psychology of social influence” is correct for a book title. “Journal of Social Psychology” is correct for a journal name.
Italicise: book titles, journal names, volume numbers (in journal article references), and titles of standalone works (films, reports, websites). Do not italicise: article titles, chapter titles, issue numbers. The volume is italicised; the issue number in parentheses is not. A common example: Journal of Applied Psychology, 45(3), 210–225 — “45” is italicised because it is the volume; “(3)” is not.
Citing Books and Book Chapters
If you are citing a specific chapter written by a specific author in a book edited by someone else — that is a book chapter citation. The chapter author goes first. The editor is listed as “In E. E. Editor (Ed.)” in the middle of the entry. If the editor and the chapter author are the same person, cite the whole book instead. Do not use the chapter format for a book where every chapter is written by the same author as the rest of the book.
Citing Journal Articles
The APA Style website at apastyle.apa.org is explicit: include a DOI whenever one is available, formatted as a hyperlink beginning with https://doi.org/. If a source has a DOI, use it — do not replace it with a URL. If a source has no DOI and was found in a library database, no URL or database name is needed. If a source has no DOI and is only available on a specific website, include that URL.
Citing Websites and Web Pages
Web citations come up constantly — and they are formatted differently from journal articles. The key information you need: author (if there is one), date, title of the specific page, the site name, and the URL. What is often missing: the author and the date. Here is how to handle both.
Cite the specific page, article, or document — not the homepage of a website. “World Health Organization. (2023). https://www.who.int” tells the reader nothing useful. They cannot find your source from that URL. Always link to the exact page that contains the information you are citing.
Other Common Source Types
Report from Government or Organisation
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of report (Report No. if applicable). Organisation Name. URL
If the author and publisher are the same organisation, list the organisation as the author and omit it from the publisher position to avoid repetition.
Thesis or Dissertation
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of dissertation [Doctoral dissertation, University Name]. Database or Archive Name. URL
For unpublished dissertations, omit the database name and URL. Label as [Unpublished doctoral dissertation] or [Unpublished master’s thesis].
Newspaper Article
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Newspaper Name. URL
For online newspaper articles, include the URL. For print editions, no URL is needed. Unlike journals, include the full date — month and day — since newspapers are dated by day.
YouTube Video or Podcast
Creator, A. A. [ChannelName]. (Year, Month Day). Title of video [Video]. YouTube. URL
For podcasts: Host, A. A. (Host). (Year, Month Day). Episode title (No. X) [Audio podcast episode]. In Podcast Name. Production Company. URL
Secondary Source (Citing a Source You Found Cited in Another Source)
You want to avoid this whenever possible. Find the original source and cite it directly. When you genuinely cannot access the original: cite the secondary source you actually read. In-text: (Original Author, Year, as cited in Secondary Author, Year). In the reference list: include only the secondary source you actually read — not the original.
Personal Communication
Emails, interviews, phone calls, and other personal communications are cited in-text only: (A. A. Author, personal communication, Month Day, Year). They do not appear in the reference list because the reader cannot retrieve them. Treat lecture notes the same way unless they are formally published or posted online.
DOIs and URLs: What You Need to Know
DOIs trip up more students than almost anything else in APA. Here is the straightforward version.
Digital Object Identifier
A permanent identifier assigned to a document — usually a journal article, but also books, reports, and datasets. It looks like: 10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.191. It is permanent. The URL for an article may change; the DOI does not.
Always as a Hyperlink
In APA 7th, DOIs are formatted as hyperlinks: https://doi.org/ followed by the DOI string. Example: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.191. No “doi:” label, no “Retrieved from” — just the full hyperlink.
Where to Look
The DOI is usually printed on the first page of the article, near the copyright line. If not, search by article title at doi.org or CrossRef. Do not invent a DOI — if you cannot find one, the source may not have one. Use a URL instead if available.
Which Takes Priority
If a source has a DOI, use the DOI — not the database URL. The DOI is more stable and more precise. If a source has no DOI, include a URL only if the source is freely available online. For database-only sources with no DOI, no URL is needed.
When to Add a Retrieval Date
For most sources, no retrieval date is needed — the date in the reference tells the reader when the content was current. Add a retrieval date only for sources whose content changes over time: wiki articles, live databases, social media profiles. Format: Retrieved Month Day, Year, from URL.
If the URL No Longer Works
Do not include a URL you cannot verify works. For archived content, use the Wayback Machine URL. For documents only available via database login, check whether a DOI exists. If neither applies and the URL is broken, note this is an issue with the source and either find an alternative or contact your librarian.
Author Formats: One, Two, Three or More
Author formatting has specific rules in both the reference list and in-text citations. They are not the same rules — what you write in the reference list is different from what you write in parentheses in the text.
| Number of Authors | Reference List Format | In-Text Citation |
|---|---|---|
| 1 author | Smith, J. A. | (Smith, 2021) |
| 2 authors | Smith, J. A., & Jones, B. C. | (Smith & Jones, 2021) |
| 3–20 authors | List all authors: Smith, J. A., Jones, B. C., & Lee, D. E. | (Smith et al., 2021) — from the first citation |
| 21+ authors | List first 19, insert ellipsis (…), then last author | (Smith et al., 2021) |
| Organisation as author | World Health Organization. (2022)… | First use: (World Health Organization [WHO], 2022) — after: (WHO, 2022) |
| No author | Title moves to author position | Italicise the title in the citation: (Title of Work, 2022) |
In APA 6th edition, sources with three to five authors listed all authors in the first in-text citation, then switched to “et al.” for subsequent citations. APA 7th simplified this: use “et al.” from the first citation for any source with three or more authors. You never need to list three, four, or five authors in an in-text citation in APA 7th. One name plus “et al.” from the start.
When Page Numbers Are Required
This is one of the most-asked APA questions. Short answer: page numbers are required for direct quotes. They are recommended but not required for paraphrases. Here is the longer version.
Required: Direct Quotes
Any time you use the exact wording from a source — even a single phrase that is distinctive — you need a page number. Use p. for a single page, pp. for a range. Example: (Smith, 2021, p. 47) or (Smith, 2021, pp. 47–48).
If the source has no page numbers (a webpage, ebook, or audio source), use an alternative locator: paragraph number (para. 3), section heading (Discussion section), or timestamp (0:04:32).
Recommended: Paraphrases
APA 7th recommends including a page or paragraph number for paraphrases “to help readers locate the relevant passage.” This is guidance, not a rule — but it is good practice for long or complex sources where the information is hard to find. Your instructor may require it. Check your course guidelines.
For short documents, a book you read in full, or a clearly labelled section — a page number is less critical. For a 400-page book, it is genuinely helpful.
What Changed from APA 6th to APA 7th Edition
APA 7th came out in 2020. If you were taught APA using older textbooks, or if you are using materials prepared before 2020, some of what you learned is out of date. The key changes:
Three-or-more authors: et al. from the first citation
In 6th, you listed up to five authors in the first in-text citation. In 7th, three or more authors use “et al.” immediately — even the first time. Simpler.
Up to 20 authors listed in the reference list
6th edition capped at six authors before using ellipsis. 7th edition lists up to 20. Only at 21 or more do you truncate: list the first 19, ellipsis, then the last author.
No publisher location required for books
“New York, NY: Penguin” became just “Penguin.” Publisher city and state are no longer included in book references. This removes a source of error — publishers move, and locating them was often guesswork.
DOIs formatted as hyperlinks
“doi:10.1037/…” became “https://doi.org/10.1037/…”. Always the full hyperlink format now. No “doi:” prefix.
Running heads not required for student papers
In 6th, all APA papers required a running head. In 7th, running heads are only required for manuscripts submitted for publication. Student papers do not need them unless an instructor specifically requires one.
Singular “they” is accepted
APA 7th formally accepts singular “they” as a gender-neutral pronoun. It is no longer necessary to write “he or she” to avoid gendering an unspecified individual. “A student submits their assignment” is now correct APA usage.
Many popular citation generators — including older versions of Cite This For Me, EasyBib, and RefWorks — were built on APA 6th edition rules and may not have been fully updated. They may include publisher locations in book references, use the old “doi:” prefix, or format multiple authors incorrectly. Always check generated citations against the APA Style website or the 7th edition manual. A generator is a starting point, not a final answer.
Common APA Errors That Cost Marks
Wrong Capitalisation on Article or Book Titles
Writing “The Psychology Of Social Influence” (title case) instead of “The psychology of social influence” (sentence case) in the reference list. Article and book titles in APA use sentence case — only the first word, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns are capitalised. Journal names are the exception and use title case.
Sentence Case for Article/Book Titles, Title Case for Journals
Check every title in your reference list. Article and book titles: only capitalise the first word, first word after a colon, and proper nouns. Journal names: capitalise every major word. This distinction is consistent — there are no exceptions beyond proper nouns.
Italicising the Wrong Thing
Italicising an article title, or not italicising the journal name and volume number. Article titles are never italicised. Journal names always are. Volume numbers always are. Issue numbers never are. Mixing these up is an easy mark to lose.
Italics Rule: Journal Name + Volume Number, Nothing Else in the Citation Line
For a journal reference: Author. (Year). Article title in sentence case. Journal Name in Title Case, Volume(Issue), Pages. The italic section covers the journal name, the comma after it, and the volume number — then stops before the issue number in parentheses.
Missing or Misformatted DOI
Omitting the DOI when one exists. Using the old “doi:10.xxxx” format instead of the hyperlink format. Copying the database URL instead of the DOI. Each of these is a formatting error and, more practically, makes the reference harder to verify.
Find the DOI, Format It as a Hyperlink
Check every journal article for a DOI before finalising your reference list. Format it as https://doi.org/[string]. If you cannot find a DOI, check CrossRef at doi.org/search. If there genuinely is none, include the direct URL to the article if it is freely available. For database-only articles with no DOI, no URL is needed.
In-Text Citation Not Matching the Reference List
Citing (Johnson, 2019) in the text but the reference list entry is for Johnston (2019). Or citing (Smith et al., 2020) when the reference lists it as (Smith, 2021). The year, author spelling, and et al. formatting must match exactly between in-text citations and reference list entries.
Cross-Check Every In-Text Citation Against Your Reference List
Before submitting, go through every in-text citation and confirm it has a matching reference list entry — same author name spelling, same year, same et al. usage. Then go through the reference list and confirm every entry has at least one in-text citation. Orphaned references and uncited sources are both errors.
Including Sources Not Cited in the Text
Adding sources to the reference list that you read but did not actually cite in the paper. APA reference lists contain only cited sources. This is not a bibliography (which can include background reading). If you want to include background sources, ask your instructor whether a separate annotated bibliography is appropriate.
Reference List = Sources Cited, Nothing More
Every entry in your APA reference list must correspond to at least one in-text citation. If a source appears in the reference list but nowhere in the text, either add an in-text citation where relevant or remove it from the reference list. There is no grey area here.
Using APA 6th Rules After 2020
Including publisher locations in book references. Using “doi:” instead of “https://doi.org/”. Listing all authors in the first in-text citation for a three-author source. These were correct under APA 6th and are now errors under APA 7th. If your department adopted 7th edition (most have), these count against you.
Confirm Which Edition Your Department Uses
Most institutions moved to APA 7th when it was published in 2020. A small number — particularly those with older-edition course materials — may still require APA 6th. If you are unsure, check your course handbook or ask your instructor directly. Do not assume. The two editions have enough differences to affect your grade.
Frequently Asked Questions About APA Citation
APA Citations Taking Longer Than They Should?
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Citation & Referencing Support Get StartedGetting APA Right Is Mostly About Consistency
APA is not the hardest citation style to learn. But it has a lot of specific rules — and they matter. Sentence case on titles. The right things italicised. DOIs as hyperlinks. The et al. threshold. Publisher location gone. The rule about ampersands in parentheses versus “and” in narrative citations.
None of these rules are arbitrary. They exist to make references consistent, machine-readable, and easy to verify. Once you understand the pattern — author, date, title in sentence case, source details, DOI — the rest is just applying it to different source types.
The practical advice: keep the APA Style website open while you write. Check your reference list before you submit. Run a cross-check — every in-text citation matched to a reference list entry, every reference list entry matched to an in-text citation. And do not rely on citation generators as your final answer. They are useful. They are not reliable enough to submit without checking.
For support with APA formatting, reference list checking, and broader citation and referencing work — our citation and referencing support, academic writing services, and proofreading and editing services cover every level of study and every citation style.
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