THE NATURE OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN SAUDI ARABIA GOVERNMENT AND THE OPPOSITION UNDER INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL SUPPORTERS

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Saudi Arabia is one of the most religious states in the world which has successfully combined the state (dawla), religion (din), and princes (umara) (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001). The country has thrived on the arrangement between the royals and the religious clerics. The Al-Saud royal family provides funding and a stable structure of government which allowed the growth of a conservative religion throughout the nation, while the clerics provided the government with the religious legitimacy to rule (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001) . The arrangement made it possible to have an authoritarian regime that uses the nation’s wealth to the favour of only the royal family. Clerics legalize all action made by the authoritarian regime even though unjustified. Arbitrary detentions and enforced disappearance were legalized by clerics as the Royals’ right to protect citizens which completely contradict with Islamic teaching. Detaining thousands of people for more than six months, in some cases for over a decade, without referring them to courts for criminal proceedings (Justice 2008) . Arbitrary detainees held for very long periods has obviously increased dramatically in recent years. Cleric Salman AlOudah has been detained since 1st September 2017 without a legal charge or indictment and was not brought to the court. It was not only the Islamists who were exposed to such violations but the intellectuals and human rights activists. The clerics were free to enforce Sharia in the country, and the Royals were free to run the wealth and affairs of the country. However, as the Saudi state grew and started embracing modernism, some changes were made, and this revealed subordination of clergy to the Royals at the expense of religion. The Royals welcomed some western ways, and this foreign influence should be rejected by the clerics (Kostiner 1996) . The royal family now is fully controlling the clerics. Conflicts arose as a result of this modernization of the country in that; the clerics support the reforms implemented by the state. Accordingly, official religious establishment became part of the government and worked in line with. The royal family wanted a more centralized system of government while citizens keen to huge reform away from the authoritarian regime.

Security grip is a royal way to keep interests and stay in power. It is impossible to talk about pluralism nor political participation as that can be conceded as disobedience of the royals and Islam teaching.  In the meantime, all opposition forces are calling for democracy, pluralism and political participation. Citizens are also seeking change not calling for dropping the royals but by calling for constitutional monarchy. Citizens and opposition forces believe in the political reform which obviously unacceptable to the Royals. Therefore, citizens’ perceptions are important for more understanding the needed reform. 

Saudi Arabia government approved a huge shift when prince Mohammed Bin Salman appointed as crown prince on June 21, 2017 (Barnell 2017). The new crown prince has made a number of exciting reforms, such allowing women to drive, opening cinema halls and performing concerts. Unfortunately, political reforms were not part of the crown prince’s plan. Furthermore, the crown prince has embarrassed the Wahhabi religious establishment as all his reforms contradict their approach. 

Crown prince Mohammed Bin Salman stated that Saudi authority adopted Wahhabism as requested by western states to stop the Communist expansion in the late 1970s (DeYoung 2018). The statement can be considered as a coup against the religious establishment which has been silent. Opposition forces welcomed the statement as it removes the authority religious legitimacy that violates rights and confiscates freedoms.  

CHAPTER TWO

Literature

The opposition in Saudi Arabia can be traced back to the early 1930s. Prior to this period, the Islamic rules were practised in accordance with the Wahhabi creed. These principles laid the basis of the Saudi expansion as an enforcer of the sharia law. The laws were used as a moral compass to guide the actions of the citizens. After the establishment of a state that was more centralized than decentralized, individuals and groups resisted the control from the state. A dispute later arose between Abd al- ‘Aziz Ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman (Ibn Sa’ud), the Saudi leader at that time, and a number of tribal groups, the Ikhwan, who were loyal to the religion and resisted being under the control of the government. Fierce disagreements arose between the leading clerics and the royals. In the 1930s, the king, Ibn Sa’ud made the Wahhabi Islam the official state religion. Only the senior clerics had supreme religious authority. This meant that all the other clerics could only conduct their affairs within the religious framework put in place by the king. He also made state interest superior to the religious interests (Matthiesen 2015) .

The Wahhabi Islam became the only moral guide in the state. However, they were only allowed to operate in accordance with the interests of the state. The clerics were limited to guiding the behaviour of the public, educating individuals, and preaching. They could not take part in governing the state. The state was run by the royals and the elite clerics. The Ikhwan tribal groups which opposed the king’s control over the people lost the battle in between 1929 and 1930 after a military help from Great Britain to King Abdulaziz. They were not able to spread their ideologies. They remained underground, and their ideas were adopted by various other opposition movements over time. The opposition in Saudi Arabia came to be as a result of people resisting change and state control (Meijer, Aarts, Wagemakers, & Kanie 2012) .

After the Second Gulf War, the opposition continued to grow. The opposition groups and individuals in this era had slightly different grievances. When the Saudi military was unable to defend the country, and the U.S military troops were called in to help, most of the people criticized the state. The royal family was seen as weak and incompetent leaders. The opposition groups that developed in this period were determined to end the reign of the royal family. There was a public outcry when the non-Muslim troops came into the country. The presence of the foreign troops in the state led to the opinion that the royal family held foreign interests in high esteem. The opposition criticized the royals as being keener on protecting the interests of outsiders (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001) .

In the years 1991-2001, the activities of the opposition were restricted by the state. Outspoken individuals who challenged the royals were imprisoned or detained without a trial (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001). The opposition groups such as the Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia started operating outside Saudi Arabia to avoid being persecuted. Most of the opposition leaders used London as a base of operations. They were able to reach their supporters through the internet and the media without facing any repression from the royal family.  The grievances and issues addressed were the same throughout the 1990s. Both the radicals and the liberals agreed on the issue of foreign interference (Jenkinsc 2017) .

Their oppositions have grown ever since despite the constant repression from the Saudi government. The opposition in Saudi Arabia is similar to other movements in the Middle East except for the fact that the Saudi opposition derives from the Wahhabi school of thought in that, they have their interpretation of the Sharia that they use to challenge state control as being unlawful. Some of the religious ideologies of the modern opposition and activism correspond with some of the ideas from the West, and as a result, they can influence the modern middle-class individuals (Matthiesen 2015) explain the assertion – democracy- pluralism- human rights principles. The Saudi oppositions accept and call for democracy, political participation, and pluralism that denied by Wahhabism. It is easier for them to influence the educated people since they purport to seek to address a modern issue such as corruption, human rights violations, among other things. Even though some of the oppositions have clear objective sand structures, they are at risk or becoming ineffective due to the measures were taken by the Saudi government and other interested parties in repressing opposition. This means that even though most of these oppositions exist and have a lot of influence, their activities are quashed even before they become established. 

The Theory of Saudi Arabia Political Opposition

All political oppositions fighting the authoritarian regime and call for democracy but under Islamic rules (sharia law).  It is common for the opposition parties in Saudi Arabia to uses the language of Islamic laws, to accuse the government of breaching the holy law by neglecting Islamic goals and deviating from Islamic practices in the administrative, economic and political affairs. The opposition party also suggests alternatives to the existing government based on the Islamic Sharia laws. The radical Islamic opposition movement such as the Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) questions theexisting state order by giving its own interpretation of Wahhabi Islam.

Liberalism enjoys a global victory in some sense, and it is perceived to perpetuate the ideals of political liberties or free trade to maximize individual freedom best. However, the opposition in Saudi Arabia believes in liberalism but under Islamic rules (not pure liberalism). The opposition in the country does not advocate a strictly secular state. The opposition is against a West’s spiritually vacant secular culture but instead want a liberal democracy’s based on divine authority. While the opposition supports most of the liberal democracies including popular elections and economic modernization, God’s sovereignty is central to the opposition politicians. The political opposition tends to align their politics with a righteous society with the precepts of shari’a; spiritualism rationalized in the technocratic ways they use to rise against the government and its absolute authority.
While the Political oppositions call for Pluralism as they believe in the need for political parties and institutions of civil society, but they support the activities of the groups should be based on their interpretation of the Islamic law.  Interpretation of the Islamic law differs from one group to another, but that does not change the nature of the liberalism they want to see in the country.

The Islamic Umma Party.

          The Islamic Umma Party is regarded as the first opposition political party in Saudi Arabia. It had defied the order that forbade the existence of political parties in Saudi Arabia. The party came into being after nine Saudi scholars, and political activists came together to fight for political reforms. The party was made public on February 9th, 2011. Unlike other organizations that came before and after it, it had a very organized structure with leaders and a well spelled out (Alsalem 2011) .

            After the party was formed, the officials of the party made invitations to activists who shared the same opinions to join them. As a result of this announcement, the founding members of the party were arrested and detained on 16th February that same year. The detainees included; Dr Ahmed bin Sa’ad bin Gharm al-Ghamidi who was a professor at Umm al-Qura University, Mr Sa’ud bin Ahmed al-Dughaithir a political activist, Shaykh Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad al-Wuhaybi; a lawyer and political activist; Dr Abdul Kareem bin Yusuf al-Khidhr who was a university professor, Shaykh Muhammad bin Hussein bin Ghaanim al-Qahtani, a businessman; Mr Muhammad bin Naser al-Ghamidi, a political activist, and Dr. Waleed bin Muhammad Abdullah al-Majid, a lawyer. The detention of these individuals was fueled by the fact that the party had amassed a big following using the media. Its growing influenced threatened the government which is keen on restricting opposition. The actions of the state succeeded in disabling the activities of the party for a while. However, by this time, the Islamic Umma Party had managed to capture the attention of a lot of the people in Saudi Arabia and outside the country. The party’s influence of the people made it a strong opposition organization in the country (Alsalem 2011). It was not just merely existing but also making a difference in terms of political opinions.      

Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA

        Robert Ryan writes an account of the MIRA opposition from its inception to the year 2005. This opposition movement was started in the early 1990s by Sa‘ad al-Faqih. Faqih was one of the founding members of another radical group, the Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights (CDLR). When CDLR relocated to London in 1993, he formed MIRA as an opposition movement against the regime in Saudi Arabia. The opposition movement claimed to be running in accordance with the sharia laws. After September 11, 2001, Faqih attracted the attention of the media and publicly condemned the Al-Saud family for various reasons including their exercise of power in Saudi Arabia. He claimed only to support peaceful means of resolving conflict (Ryan 2005).

The movement has a strong horizontal but weak vertical structure. It is a single person organization since it was formed by Faqih alone. This makes it very weak and is bound to disappear once its leader is disappeared — the movement aimed at removing the Al-Saud family from power using peaceful means. Faqih was an expatriate and this limited the ways through which the Saudi government would capture and imprison him. The movement was also based in London and utilized technology to reach its supporters. Ryan argues that Faqih and the movement were not as effective as they were unable to inspire any kind of reform. In 2004, Faqih called for demonstrations, but the turnout was low since public protesting is outlawed in Saudi Arabia. On the day of the protests, the government increased security troops on the streets to prevent the assembly of people and direct traffic. The other reason why there were very few people willing to take part in the demonstrations was that they did not know what they were protesting against. When Faqih called for the protests, he only told his followers to demand reforms. The movement was linked to terrorist groups. In 2004, Faqih was put on the list of al-Qaeda operatives by the United Nations Security Council (Ryan 2005) .

Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party).

          The Tajdeed Islamic Party was formed in London. Its focus is on the jurisprudence issues that affect Muslim. It supports the “freedom of thought and believes in dialogue based on argument and evidence” (About the Ideology of Party of Islamic Renewal). This is a radical Islamist group that believes in fulfilling their duties at any cost. The growth of the influence of the group is curtailed by both the Saudi government and the Western world.

Ghanem Almasarir

Ghanem Almasarir is a Saudi human rights activist and a well-liked political comedian who is based in London. He is a known political satirist popular for hosting the Ghanem Show that features many popular sections such as “Fadfada.” The show involves criticism of the royal family using black comedy. As an individual opposition, he is very effective in reaching the people. He has a very good media presence and has over half a million followers on tweeter and more on the other social media platforms. The work he does not only sensitizes the world on what is happening in Saudi Arabia but also provides an alternative to the use of violence and threats in the fight against an oppressive regime. The show and the other video clips he publishes on websites and on YouTube reaches thousands of people. His YouTube channel and tweets are readily available to the public. The fact that he can reach a lot of people makes Ghanem one of the most effective opposition. The use of social media improves his chances of reaching the young generation.

Almasarir had been in self-imposed exile since 2003 in London, where he controlled his YouTube-based show from 2015. In his show, he condemns the Saudi royal family, whom he tags as “Salmanco” (relating to the techniques used by the King in controlling the nation in a fashion comparable to a business or as private possession) and “al-Dub al-Dasher” (means fat stray bear) correspondingly in a funny way. Almasarir accused Saud al-Qahtani, an advisor to the Saudi royal court, of being involved in crimes linked to “visa fraud” in Saudi Arabia.

Oppositions Financial Support

The Royals have not lacked the oppositions, although for a long time the Royals have been capable of containing or coopting them. After the second Gulf War, nevertheless, the socio-religious troubles that have overwhelmed the country have resulted in the development of a small opposition society that has disputed royals’ public image. The oppositions were funded later on by international countries such as Libya, Qatar, and Iran.

It has been recognized and noted that Saudi oppositions receive some financial support from states such as the former Libyan regime, Qatar, and Iran. The late Gaddafi’s regime in Libya offered financial aid to Mohammed Almassari, Saudi’s opposition leader, to assassinate former king Abdullah (Burger & Macleod 2004). Qaddafi termed the Saudis that they can even ally with the devil to save themselves. King Abdullah referred to Gaddafi as a liar and states that his grave awaits him. That was in 2003. In 2009, the two leaders insulted each other again in an Arab League summit. Gaddafi had confirmed supporting the assassination attacks on the Saudi King Abdullah. This was to happen in either of the following ways: a personal attack, or by oppositions that would overcome the Royals. Gaddafi planned to interfere and harm the royals and was looking for an opposition who were eager to get involved (Fotopoulos 2011). Al-Massari was the primary suspect of the plan who was charged for the proceedings on colluding for the murder of the late King Abdullah.

Qatar has supported the Saudi Saad Al-Faqih and others to utilize them as instruments to strike the royals. Qatar’s want to respond to the Saudi royals whom supported and planned the 1996 coup against Qatar regime. Qatar preferred to attain that objective by destabilizing UAE, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia, by supporting their arch-rival, Iran that is also planning on disrupting order in the Middle East (Almezaini & Rickli 2016).

Al-Faqih and others were paid millions of Qatari Riyals to create and spread falsehoods concerning Saudi royals. Al-Faqih, currently living in London received 395 million Qatari riyals to use in the plan, in any manner, on weaving fictions on Saudi royals (Qatarileaks 2017) . Qatar has established then use Aljazeera channel to sponsor socio-political reforms in the region. Aljazeera channel helped Saudi oppositions to spread their ideas and political projects to stepdown the Saudi royals for a limited period of time. 

Iran had funded Al-Dosari since 2015 when he started his Ghanem show with Iran offering Almasarir free TV studio recording. Ghanem show could freely use the Iran network as a Saudi human rights campaigner and a well-liked political comedian to criticize the Saudi government. This provided a great chance for the Protestants in Saudi to demonstrate and disrupt the government. Ghanem show and the black comedy also gives the opposition a chance to disclose mysteries linked to the royal family and incited demonstrations against the Saudi rule.

Through external funding from Iran and its London organizations arm, Almasarir had led an opposition group referred to as “September 15 Movement.” The protest occurred all over Saudi Arabia in 2017 that has been depicted as convincing a large group of citizens. The protests supported by Almasarir led to a point where the existing crisis with Qatar had authorized gathering so many people protesters like never before that might be the reason for the anxiety of the system towards the demonstrations. London has functioned as an Arab media house. Running away from the bans at home, media personalities find liberty in exile. United Kingdome provided the safest place for Saudi Arabian oppositions. 

Famous clergymen like Salman al-Ouda and Awadh al-Qarni were captured because of being detected as “pro-Doha” and a big following in social media networks that the Saudi regime dreaded would be used to aid protests mandated by Almasarir (Mabon 2018). Frequent leading priests associated with the Saudi like Grand Mufti and Saleh Al Maghamsi have pointed out flaws in Almasarir’s campaign and demanded Saudi people to oppose it.

Al-Sheikh was hosted in MBC show and assured that the advocators for protests for the 15th September campaign were supporters of fraud and sedition “fitna.” He confirmed that they do not have a good intention and that they want to disrupt the government and cause unnecessary civil war, which is promulgated by the rivals of Saudi Arabia. He has accused Almasarir of working with Iran to incite and sponsor the “September 15 Movement”. He also termed demonstrators as the advocates of ignorance “Jahiliyyah” and perverseness. Since late 2017, it was recorded that Almasarir already had about 553,000 followers on Twitter and million viewers on his YouTube-based channel. 

Iran is funding and politicizing the Shia distinctiveness that is intended only to enhance tensions in Saudi Arabia and might even undermine other parts of the Middle East. Iran has long attempted to institute itself as a main, political, economic and cultural competitor in the Middle East by tactically funding the minority Shia in the area. As the leading Shia majority nation in the area, Iran has an interest in offsetting Saudi power through the area and conquering a place as a local power with worldwide accomplishment. As the Sunnis are ruled by functional governments, Iran fights to gain more influence in Iraq than all other interested parties do. Tehran would want to keep Iraq stable but would have to mediate between Shia and Sunni conflict, helping Shia regain its influence in the region but keeping them from being too powerful.

Massive Reforms in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is known for the history of maintaining the legacy of Islamic conservatism to shape the country’s education and economy. However, with Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman ascend to power social liberalization has become central to the economic modernization, Islamic tolerance and moderation. For several years, Saudi Arabia has been an oil-dependent economy, and economic liberalization would have a significant economic impact in the country’s future.

According to Stancati (2018) , Saudi Arabia was the only country in the world that had banned women from driving, and it was considered a taboo for women to drive. Music and entertainment were also considered taboo in the country while women were also prohibited from watching soccer or getting involved in sports. However, Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s “Vision 2030” program is intended to transform the country economically, socially and culturally by lifting most of the practices that hold the country back. According to Kubersky (2018) , Saudi Arabia has pledged to use billions of dollars to modernize and overhaul the country’s entertainment sector in a bid to achieve the economic value of the sector. During an ultra-conservative past, the participation of women in public entertainment was unheard, and it was a taboo for women to enter entertainment venues. However, with reforms women are free to participate in all entertainment activities. 

Most of the new reforms are intended to make the Kingdom more progressive in line with moral standards of the West. According to Thompson (2017) , Saudi Arabia under Prince Mohammed bin Salman has entered an unprecedented phase in its history with much of Kingdom’s tight religious policies being eased to alleviate the oppression many Saudis have experienced in the history of the country. Much of the religious policies have been oppressive especially on the part of women since they could not drive or participate in sports or even any kind of entertainments, but with the new reforms, women can enjoy a normal life like other women elsewhere in the world.

Saudi Arabia’s oil industry has been central to most of the benefits that are enjoyed by its citizens including free health care and subsidized housing. However, with the declining global oil prices, Mohammed bin Salman perceives that privatizing certain sectors such as the national oil industry would help diversify the economy an end the Kingdom’s overreliance on oil-economy. According to Ignatius (2018), the new reform plan is intended to make Saudi Arabia into a more entrepreneurial, more modern, less-hidebound and more youth- ­oriented society. Majority of the country’s population is made up of youth, and more than 12% of the labour force is unemployed. Salameh (2016) contends that the new changes will help the country become more attractive to foreign investors and empower the country’s own youth in the facing of growing underground extremist groups and limited opportunities for the youth. The revenue from oil has been declining since the prices of the product plummeted in 2014. A drive to economic diversification will help the country overcome vulnerability that arises from the reliance on oil alone.

Reforms imposed by Prince Mohammed bin Salman prove essential to Saudi Arabia’s alignment with the global social and economic changes. Diversification of the economy is vital to help the country overcome economic challenges in the face of declining fortunes from the oil industry. Changes in the social and cultural welfare of the country are essential since alleviation of rigid religious policies gives women much-needed freedom they deserve.


Hypothesis

This research has developed the below hypothesis to act as a guide when conducting the research.

  • Hypothesis: The repression of political opposition by authoritarian Saudi monarchy is not centred on Islamic fundamentalism but the response to radical movements challenging the strength behind the authoritarianism including US imperialism and modernization.

Most of the political opposition parties in Saudi Arabia are concerned about the increased US imperialism and secularization of the society which is against the Islamic fundamentalism which is the source of the countries national pride. The hard stance taken by the monarch against political activities in the country is influenced by the desire to maintain the strengthening forces behind the authoritarian government which are the US imperialism and oil capitalism.

The US and other foreign forces have been a significant role in supporting the Saudi Arabia monarch to crush the slightest political opposition be it peaceful, conservative or radical.  In the aftermath of radicalization that led to the infamous 9/11 terrorist attack in America, the Western forces including the US and UK have supported the monarchy in a large to repress any political opposition using any means possible.  While the legitimacy of the authoritarian government is supported by the clerics, who have been the force behind the conservative religion that is the central to national unity, increased US imperialism has made the monarch to drift away from the Islamic Sharia laws that are fundamental Islamic religion.  The democratic space in the country has been repressed to impede the political opposition a chance to thrive in the country. In the aftermath of the Arab spring, the monarch employed harsh measures intended to crush the slightest form of opposition in the country.

Research Objectives

The primary aim of this research is to explore which factors affect the success of the Saudi Arabia opposition parties in light of authoritarian monarch government that uses all forms of powers to outlaw political opposition in the country.  The study will explore how a wide range of factors empower or disempowers the political opposition in the country.

Objectives

  1. To determine how the political opposition thrive in the face of authoritarian government.
  2. To establish western influence in Saudi Arabia affects the success of the opposition political parties.
  3. Determine whether international financial supports the success of political opposition in Saudi Arabia.
  4. To determine how lack of democracy hinders political opposition activities in Saudi Arabia.
  5. Establish how monarch has learned how best to deal with opposition groups since the Arab Spring.

Research Questions

Research questions help in providing the direction that the research will take. This particular research will use the following research questions

  1. To what extent does lack of democracy affect political opposition, Saudi Arabia?
  2. How has the Arab Spring affected success or failure of political opposition in Saudi Arabia?
  3. How have Western countries affected political opposition in Saudi Arabia?
  4. Which is the main factor that affects the success of the Saudi Arabia political opposition?
  5. How is international financial support shaping the future of political opposition in Saudi Arabia?
  6. What are the achievements of political opposition parties in Saudi Arabia?

The following chapter presents the methodology of the main study in order to examine the research questions.

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

The study employed a qualitative content analysis approach.  The study extracted data for specific variables of interest including a year of publication, type of publication and availability of the content. The study selected freely available information on the internet which included publications by major digital newspapers, print, websites and scholarly articles. The study employed a systematic coding approach to code a large volume of text to identify to identify patterns or themes and meanings from the texts. The coding approach was developed based on the conventional qualitative content analysis approach. A systematic generation of theory (The Theory of Saudi Arabia Political Opposition) was used to develop codes directly from the texts.  

The code names developed in the study included

  1. Attitude from the West
  2. Democracy
  3. Constitutional monarchy
  4. International financial support
  5. Political openness
  6. Historical hostility among opposition’s groups
  7. Saudi authority suppressing for each group since the Arab Spring

Analysis

While the Saudi Arabia monarchy regime prohibits formation of political opposition outfit in the Kingdom, a number of political parties including The Islamic Umma Party, Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA, Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) and Ghanem Almasarir have been formed in protest to a wide range of issues they do not agree with in the monarch. However, the political outfits have experienced a mix of failures and success in the light of the authoritarian government for a wide range of factors.

Suppression by Saudi Authority after the Arab Spring

The Arab Spring played a significant role in influencing regime change in large part of the Arab World including countries such as Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Bahrain.Saudi Arabia remained untouched by the Arab Spring by employing successful counterrevolutionary mechanisms. However, the Arab Spring played a vital role in promoting the formation of political opposition in the Kingdom that had experienced limited political opposition activities for several decades (Mabon 2012). The Umma Islamic Party is one of the parties whose position was predominantly influenced by the Arab Spring in 2011. It is regarded as the first opposition political party in Saudi Arabia since it was the first to defy the order that forbade the existence of political parties in Saudi Arabia. Party came into being after nine Saudi scholars, and political activists came together to fight for political reforms. The party was made public on February 9th, 2011. Unlike other organizations that came before and after it, it had a very organized structure with leaders and a well spelled out (Alsalem 2011) . In light of the  Arab Spring that was informed by the need to bring an end to the Authoritarian Regimes in most of the Arab States, The Umma Islamic Party also wanted an end to the authoritarian Saudi monarch regime. The Arab Spring had succeeded in toppling oppressive regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Bahrain and it played a significant role to buttress formation of the first political movement in the Saudi Arabia soil. All the other political movements were operating outside Saudi Arabia including the Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA and Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) which are based in U.K.

Since early 2011 the monarch has taken stern action against Islamist and liberal critics without clear reasons behind the arrests and other measures taken by the government. Open criticism of prominent princes or the ruling family as a whole and overt challenges to the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam predominant in the country drew particularly harsh responses (Mabon 2012). The Islamic Umma Party (Hizb al-Umma al-Islami) which formed a political opposition in the state despite being banned by the monarch government experienced the wrath of the government (Bsheer 2018). The Saudi ruling family assumed that the Islamic Umma Party (Hizb al-Umma al-Islami) wanted to topple their regime despite the party having moderate demands. The founding members of the Islamic Umma Party were arrested but later released on the condition that they would refrain from any form of political activities in the future. Any activist or individual who made any form of provocative demands in the aftermath of the 2011 Arab Spring faced heightened state repression liberal activists such as Muhammad al-Qahtani and Abdallah al-Hamid.

Democracy and Constitutional Monarchy

The Saudi monarch government employs authoritarianism which comprises of a ban on political action, frequent resort to police violence, opacity, and disinformation. Use of excessive power to crack down dissidents through waves of arrests and imprisonments has impacted negatively on political opposition in Saudi Arabia (Matthiesen 2012). Additionally, there is the use of specialized Criminal Courts that use the counterterrorism regulations to repress pro-reform activists and peaceful dissidents. A sheer criticism of the regime through media interview or social media warrants arrest and imprisonment. Arbitrary arrest s of political party leaders and activists coupled with systematic violations of due process and fair trial rights have made it hard for the political opposition to thrive in the country (Ménoret 2016). The authorities detain arrested suspects for months, even years, without judicial review or prosecution with the sole intention of crapping down any form of political opposition. The intellectuals behind the formation of the Umma Party were arrested following the formation of the party. Other party leaders including those of the Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA and Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) had to operate from U.K in fear of being arrested and lack of democracy in Saudi Arabia. Ghanem Almasarir, one of the major activists and critics of the Saudi Royal family, operates from U.K. for fear of being arrested.

The Western Attitude

The Al Saud have consolidated their grip on power, against popular protest and unrest, with the aid of the U.S. oil company Aramco and of international security cooperation. In the past decades, the Saudi state has benefited from the French, British, and U.S. input in the design of a brutal repression machine. All the opposition parties in Saudi Arabia are against the Western Imperialism adopted by the royal family in governing the country.  The increased involvement of the Western Powers such as the U.S.A, U.K., France and Germany in the affairs of Kingdom has led to increased modernization which is interpreted as the secularization of the society and western imperialism by the opposition parties (Madawi 2015). In the aftermath of the terror attack on the American soil in 9/11, the American government supported the Saudi Arabia government in the fight against terrorism with the intention of suppressing any form of radicalization in the country. Consequently, the Suadi Arabia government adopted the 2014 terror laws extended the definition of terrorism to cover the peaceful protest, political speech, and organized action (Rosie 2012). The kingdom now has full power to crush any protest or criticism, no matter how peaceful or constructive it may be. Ultimately, the Saudi Arabia opposition today is organized principally on Islamist foundation which is the sense of national pride (Beranek 2009). However, the support of the western powers Saudi Arabia has been able to crush every form on the opposition in the country making opposition activities hard to thrive.

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THE NATURE OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN SAUDI ARABIA GOVERNMENT AND THE OPPOSITION UNDER INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL SUPPORTERS

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Saudi Arabia is one of the most religious states in the world which has successfully combined the state (dawla), religion (din), and princes (umara) (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001). The country has thrived on the arrangement between the royals and the religious clerics. The Al-Saud royal family provides funding and a stable structure of government which allowed the growth of a conservative religion throughout the nation, while the clerics provided the government with the religious legitimacy to rule (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001) . The arrangement made it possible to have an authoritarian regime that uses the nation’s wealth to the favour of only the royal family. Clerics legalize all action made by the authoritarian regime even though unjustified. Arbitrary detentions and enforced disappearance were legalized by clerics as the Royals’ right to protect citizens which completely contradict with Islamic teaching. Detaining thousands of people for more than six months, in some cases for over a decade, without referring them to courts for criminal proceedings (Justice 2008) . Arbitrary detainees held for very long periods has obviously increased dramatically in recent years. Cleric Salman AlOudah has been detained since 1st September 2017 without a legal charge or indictment and was not brought to the court. It was not only the Islamists who were exposed to such violations but the intellectuals and human rights activists. The clerics were free to enforce Sharia in the country, and the Royals were free to run the wealth and affairs of the country. However, as the Saudi state grew and started embracing modernism, some changes were made, and this revealed subordination of clergy to the Royals at the expense of religion. The Royals welcomed some western ways, and this foreign influence should be rejected by the clerics (Kostiner 1996) . The royal family now is fully controlling the clerics. Conflicts arose as a result of this modernization of the country in that; the clerics support the reforms implemented by the state. Accordingly, official religious establishment became part of the government and worked in line with. The royal family wanted a more centralized system of government while citizens keen to huge reform away from the authoritarian regime.

Security grip is a royal way to keep interests and stay in power. It is impossible to talk about pluralism nor political participation as that can be conceded as disobedience of the royals and Islam teaching.  In the meantime, all opposition forces are calling for democracy, pluralism and political participation. Citizens are also seeking change not calling for dropping the royals but by calling for constitutional monarchy. Citizens and opposition forces believe in the political reform which obviously unacceptable to the Royals. Therefore, citizens’ perceptions are important for more understanding the needed reform. 

Saudi Arabia government approved a huge shift when prince Mohammed Bin Salman appointed as crown prince on June 21, 2017 (Barnell 2017). The new crown prince has made a number of exciting reforms, such allowing women to drive, opening cinema halls and performing concerts. Unfortunately, political reforms were not part of the crown prince’s plan. Furthermore, the crown prince has embarrassed the Wahhabi religious establishment as all his reforms contradict their approach. 

Crown prince Mohammed Bin Salman stated that Saudi authority adopted Wahhabism as requested by western states to stop the Communist expansion in the late 1970s (DeYoung 2018). The statement can be considered as a coup against the religious establishment which has been silent. Opposition forces welcomed the statement as it removes the authority religious legitimacy that violates rights and confiscates freedoms.  

CHAPTER TWO

Literature

The opposition in Saudi Arabia can be traced back to the early 1930s. Prior to this period, the Islamic rules were practised in accordance with the Wahhabi creed. These principles laid the basis of the Saudi expansion as an enforcer of the sharia law. The laws were used as a moral compass to guide the actions of the citizens. After the establishment of a state that was more centralized than decentralized, individuals and groups resisted the control from the state. A dispute later arose between Abd al- ‘Aziz Ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman (Ibn Sa’ud), the Saudi leader at that time, and a number of tribal groups, the Ikhwan, who were loyal to the religion and resisted being under the control of the government. Fierce disagreements arose between the leading clerics and the royals. In the 1930s, the king, Ibn Sa’ud made the Wahhabi Islam the official state religion. Only the senior clerics had supreme religious authority. This meant that all the other clerics could only conduct their affairs within the religious framework put in place by the king. He also made state interest superior to the religious interests (Matthiesen 2015) .

The Wahhabi Islam became the only moral guide in the state. However, they were only allowed to operate in accordance with the interests of the state. The clerics were limited to guiding the behaviour of the public, educating individuals, and preaching. They could not take part in governing the state. The state was run by the royals and the elite clerics. The Ikhwan tribal groups which opposed the king’s control over the people lost the battle in between 1929 and 1930 after a military help from Great Britain to King Abdulaziz. They were not able to spread their ideologies. They remained underground, and their ideas were adopted by various other opposition movements over time. The opposition in Saudi Arabia came to be as a result of people resisting change and state control (Meijer, Aarts, Wagemakers, & Kanie 2012) .

After the Second Gulf War, the opposition continued to grow. The opposition groups and individuals in this era had slightly different grievances. When the Saudi military was unable to defend the country, and the U.S military troops were called in to help, most of the people criticized the state. The royal family was seen as weak and incompetent leaders. The opposition groups that developed in this period were determined to end the reign of the royal family. There was a public outcry when the non-Muslim troops came into the country. The presence of the foreign troops in the state led to the opinion that the royal family held foreign interests in high esteem. The opposition criticized the royals as being keener on protecting the interests of outsiders (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001) .

In the years 1991-2001, the activities of the opposition were restricted by the state. Outspoken individuals who challenged the royals were imprisoned or detained without a trial (Teitelbaum & Pipes 2001). The opposition groups such as the Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia started operating outside Saudi Arabia to avoid being persecuted. Most of the opposition leaders used London as a base of operations. They were able to reach their supporters through the internet and the media without facing any repression from the royal family.  The grievances and issues addressed were the same throughout the 1990s. Both the radicals and the liberals agreed on the issue of foreign interference (Jenkinsc 2017) .

Their oppositions have grown ever since despite the constant repression from the Saudi government. The opposition in Saudi Arabia is similar to other movements in the Middle East except for the fact that the Saudi opposition derives from the Wahhabi school of thought in that, they have their interpretation of the Sharia that they use to challenge state control as being unlawful. Some of the religious ideologies of the modern opposition and activism correspond with some of the ideas from the West, and as a result, they can influence the modern middle-class individuals (Matthiesen 2015) explain the assertion – democracy- pluralism- human rights principles. The Saudi oppositions accept and call for democracy, political participation, and pluralism that denied by Wahhabism. It is easier for them to influence the educated people since they purport to seek to address a modern issue such as corruption, human rights violations, among other things. Even though some of the oppositions have clear objective sand structures, they are at risk or becoming ineffective due to the measures were taken by the Saudi government and other interested parties in repressing opposition. This means that even though most of these oppositions exist and have a lot of influence, their activities are quashed even before they become established. 

The Theory of Saudi Arabia Political Opposition

All political oppositions fighting the authoritarian regime and call for democracy but under Islamic rules (sharia law).  It is common for the opposition parties in Saudi Arabia to uses the language of Islamic laws, to accuse the government of breaching the holy law by neglecting Islamic goals and deviating from Islamic practices in the administrative, economic and political affairs. The opposition party also suggests alternatives to the existing government based on the Islamic Sharia laws. The radical Islamic opposition movement such as the Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) questions theexisting state order by giving its own interpretation of Wahhabi Islam.

Liberalism enjoys a global victory in some sense, and it is perceived to perpetuate the ideals of political liberties or free trade to maximize individual freedom best. However, the opposition in Saudi Arabia believes in liberalism but under Islamic rules (not pure liberalism). The opposition in the country does not advocate a strictly secular state. The opposition is against a West’s spiritually vacant secular culture but instead want a liberal democracy’s based on divine authority. While the opposition supports most of the liberal democracies including popular elections and economic modernization, God’s sovereignty is central to the opposition politicians. The political opposition tends to align their politics with a righteous society with the precepts of shari’a; spiritualism rationalized in the technocratic ways they use to rise against the government and its absolute authority.
While the Political oppositions call for Pluralism as they believe in the need for political parties and institutions of civil society, but they support the activities of the groups should be based on their interpretation of the Islamic law.  Interpretation of the Islamic law differs from one group to another, but that does not change the nature of the liberalism they want to see in the country.

The Islamic Umma Party.

          The Islamic Umma Party is regarded as the first opposition political party in Saudi Arabia. It had defied the order that forbade the existence of political parties in Saudi Arabia. The party came into being after nine Saudi scholars, and political activists came together to fight for political reforms. The party was made public on February 9th, 2011. Unlike other organizations that came before and after it, it had a very organized structure with leaders and a well spelled out (Alsalem 2011) .

            After the party was formed, the officials of the party made invitations to activists who shared the same opinions to join them. As a result of this announcement, the founding members of the party were arrested and detained on 16th February that same year. The detainees included; Dr Ahmed bin Sa’ad bin Gharm al-Ghamidi who was a professor at Umm al-Qura University, Mr Sa’ud bin Ahmed al-Dughaithir a political activist, Shaykh Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad al-Wuhaybi; a lawyer and political activist; Dr Abdul Kareem bin Yusuf al-Khidhr who was a university professor, Shaykh Muhammad bin Hussein bin Ghaanim al-Qahtani, a businessman; Mr Muhammad bin Naser al-Ghamidi, a political activist, and Dr. Waleed bin Muhammad Abdullah al-Majid, a lawyer. The detention of these individuals was fueled by the fact that the party had amassed a big following using the media. Its growing influenced threatened the government which is keen on restricting opposition. The actions of the state succeeded in disabling the activities of the party for a while. However, by this time, the Islamic Umma Party had managed to capture the attention of a lot of the people in Saudi Arabia and outside the country. The party’s influence of the people made it a strong opposition organization in the country (Alsalem 2011). It was not just merely existing but also making a difference in terms of political opinions.      

Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA

        Robert Ryan writes an account of the MIRA opposition from its inception to the year 2005. This opposition movement was started in the early 1990s by Sa‘ad al-Faqih. Faqih was one of the founding members of another radical group, the Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights (CDLR). When CDLR relocated to London in 1993, he formed MIRA as an opposition movement against the regime in Saudi Arabia. The opposition movement claimed to be running in accordance with the sharia laws. After September 11, 2001, Faqih attracted the attention of the media and publicly condemned the Al-Saud family for various reasons including their exercise of power in Saudi Arabia. He claimed only to support peaceful means of resolving conflict (Ryan 2005).

The movement has a strong horizontal but weak vertical structure. It is a single person organization since it was formed by Faqih alone. This makes it very weak and is bound to disappear once its leader is disappeared — the movement aimed at removing the Al-Saud family from power using peaceful means. Faqih was an expatriate and this limited the ways through which the Saudi government would capture and imprison him. The movement was also based in London and utilized technology to reach its supporters. Ryan argues that Faqih and the movement were not as effective as they were unable to inspire any kind of reform. In 2004, Faqih called for demonstrations, but the turnout was low since public protesting is outlawed in Saudi Arabia. On the day of the protests, the government increased security troops on the streets to prevent the assembly of people and direct traffic. The other reason why there were very few people willing to take part in the demonstrations was that they did not know what they were protesting against. When Faqih called for the protests, he only told his followers to demand reforms. The movement was linked to terrorist groups. In 2004, Faqih was put on the list of al-Qaeda operatives by the United Nations Security Council (Ryan 2005) .

Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party).

          The Tajdeed Islamic Party was formed in London. Its focus is on the jurisprudence issues that affect Muslim. It supports the “freedom of thought and believes in dialogue based on argument and evidence” (About the Ideology of Party of Islamic Renewal). This is a radical Islamist group that believes in fulfilling their duties at any cost. The growth of the influence of the group is curtailed by both the Saudi government and the Western world.

Ghanem Almasarir

Ghanem Almasarir is a Saudi human rights activist and a well-liked political comedian who is based in London. He is a known political satirist popular for hosting the Ghanem Show that features many popular sections such as “Fadfada.” The show involves criticism of the royal family using black comedy. As an individual opposition, he is very effective in reaching the people. He has a very good media presence and has over half a million followers on tweeter and more on the other social media platforms. The work he does not only sensitizes the world on what is happening in Saudi Arabia but also provides an alternative to the use of violence and threats in the fight against an oppressive regime. The show and the other video clips he publishes on websites and on YouTube reaches thousands of people. His YouTube channel and tweets are readily available to the public. The fact that he can reach a lot of people makes Ghanem one of the most effective opposition. The use of social media improves his chances of reaching the young generation.

Almasarir had been in self-imposed exile since 2003 in London, where he controlled his YouTube-based show from 2015. In his show, he condemns the Saudi royal family, whom he tags as “Salmanco” (relating to the techniques used by the King in controlling the nation in a fashion comparable to a business or as private possession) and “al-Dub al-Dasher” (means fat stray bear) correspondingly in a funny way. Almasarir accused Saud al-Qahtani, an advisor to the Saudi royal court, of being involved in crimes linked to “visa fraud” in Saudi Arabia.

Oppositions Financial Support

The Royals have not lacked the oppositions, although for a long time the Royals have been capable of containing or coopting them. After the second Gulf War, nevertheless, the socio-religious troubles that have overwhelmed the country have resulted in the development of a small opposition society that has disputed royals’ public image. The oppositions were funded later on by international countries such as Libya, Qatar, and Iran.

It has been recognized and noted that Saudi oppositions receive some financial support from states such as the former Libyan regime, Qatar, and Iran. The late Gaddafi’s regime in Libya offered financial aid to Mohammed Almassari, Saudi’s opposition leader, to assassinate former king Abdullah (Burger & Macleod 2004). Qaddafi termed the Saudis that they can even ally with the devil to save themselves. King Abdullah referred to Gaddafi as a liar and states that his grave awaits him. That was in 2003. In 2009, the two leaders insulted each other again in an Arab League summit. Gaddafi had confirmed supporting the assassination attacks on the Saudi King Abdullah. This was to happen in either of the following ways: a personal attack, or by oppositions that would overcome the Royals. Gaddafi planned to interfere and harm the royals and was looking for an opposition who were eager to get involved (Fotopoulos 2011). Al-Massari was the primary suspect of the plan who was charged for the proceedings on colluding for the murder of the late King Abdullah.

Qatar has supported the Saudi Saad Al-Faqih and others to utilize them as instruments to strike the royals. Qatar’s want to respond to the Saudi royals whom supported and planned the 1996 coup against Qatar regime. Qatar preferred to attain that objective by destabilizing UAE, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia, by supporting their arch-rival, Iran that is also planning on disrupting order in the Middle East (Almezaini & Rickli 2016).

Al-Faqih and others were paid millions of Qatari Riyals to create and spread falsehoods concerning Saudi royals. Al-Faqih, currently living in London received 395 million Qatari riyals to use in the plan, in any manner, on weaving fictions on Saudi royals (Qatarileaks 2017) . Qatar has established then use Aljazeera channel to sponsor socio-political reforms in the region. Aljazeera channel helped Saudi oppositions to spread their ideas and political projects to stepdown the Saudi royals for a limited period of time. 

Iran had funded Al-Dosari since 2015 when he started his Ghanem show with Iran offering Almasarir free TV studio recording. Ghanem show could freely use the Iran network as a Saudi human rights campaigner and a well-liked political comedian to criticize the Saudi government. This provided a great chance for the Protestants in Saudi to demonstrate and disrupt the government. Ghanem show and the black comedy also gives the opposition a chance to disclose mysteries linked to the royal family and incited demonstrations against the Saudi rule.

Through external funding from Iran and its London organizations arm, Almasarir had led an opposition group referred to as “September 15 Movement.” The protest occurred all over Saudi Arabia in 2017 that has been depicted as convincing a large group of citizens. The protests supported by Almasarir led to a point where the existing crisis with Qatar had authorized gathering so many people protesters like never before that might be the reason for the anxiety of the system towards the demonstrations. London has functioned as an Arab media house. Running away from the bans at home, media personalities find liberty in exile. United Kingdome provided the safest place for Saudi Arabian oppositions. 

Famous clergymen like Salman al-Ouda and Awadh al-Qarni were captured because of being detected as “pro-Doha” and a big following in social media networks that the Saudi regime dreaded would be used to aid protests mandated by Almasarir (Mabon 2018). Frequent leading priests associated with the Saudi like Grand Mufti and Saleh Al Maghamsi have pointed out flaws in Almasarir’s campaign and demanded Saudi people to oppose it.

Al-Sheikh was hosted in MBC show and assured that the advocators for protests for the 15th September campaign were supporters of fraud and sedition “fitna.” He confirmed that they do not have a good intention and that they want to disrupt the government and cause unnecessary civil war, which is promulgated by the rivals of Saudi Arabia. He has accused Almasarir of working with Iran to incite and sponsor the “September 15 Movement”. He also termed demonstrators as the advocates of ignorance “Jahiliyyah” and perverseness. Since late 2017, it was recorded that Almasarir already had about 553,000 followers on Twitter and million viewers on his YouTube-based channel. 

Iran is funding and politicizing the Shia distinctiveness that is intended only to enhance tensions in Saudi Arabia and might even undermine other parts of the Middle East. Iran has long attempted to institute itself as a main, political, economic and cultural competitor in the Middle East by tactically funding the minority Shia in the area. As the leading Shia majority nation in the area, Iran has an interest in offsetting Saudi power through the area and conquering a place as a local power with worldwide accomplishment. As the Sunnis are ruled by functional governments, Iran fights to gain more influence in Iraq than all other interested parties do. Tehran would want to keep Iraq stable but would have to mediate between Shia and Sunni conflict, helping Shia regain its influence in the region but keeping them from being too powerful.

Massive Reforms in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is known for the history of maintaining the legacy of Islamic conservatism to shape the country’s education and economy. However, with Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman ascend to power social liberalization has become central to the economic modernization, Islamic tolerance and moderation. For several years, Saudi Arabia has been an oil-dependent economy, and economic liberalization would have a significant economic impact in the country’s future.

According to Stancati (2018) , Saudi Arabia was the only country in the world that had banned women from driving, and it was considered a taboo for women to drive. Music and entertainment were also considered taboo in the country while women were also prohibited from watching soccer or getting involved in sports. However, Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s “Vision 2030” program is intended to transform the country economically, socially and culturally by lifting most of the practices that hold the country back. According to Kubersky (2018) , Saudi Arabia has pledged to use billions of dollars to modernize and overhaul the country’s entertainment sector in a bid to achieve the economic value of the sector. During an ultra-conservative past, the participation of women in public entertainment was unheard, and it was a taboo for women to enter entertainment venues. However, with reforms women are free to participate in all entertainment activities. 

Most of the new reforms are intended to make the Kingdom more progressive in line with moral standards of the West. According to Thompson (2017) , Saudi Arabia under Prince Mohammed bin Salman has entered an unprecedented phase in its history with much of Kingdom’s tight religious policies being eased to alleviate the oppression many Saudis have experienced in the history of the country. Much of the religious policies have been oppressive especially on the part of women since they could not drive or participate in sports or even any kind of entertainments, but with the new reforms, women can enjoy a normal life like other women elsewhere in the world.

Saudi Arabia’s oil industry has been central to most of the benefits that are enjoyed by its citizens including free health care and subsidized housing. However, with the declining global oil prices, Mohammed bin Salman perceives that privatizing certain sectors such as the national oil industry would help diversify the economy an end the Kingdom’s overreliance on oil-economy. According to Ignatius (2018), the new reform plan is intended to make Saudi Arabia into a more entrepreneurial, more modern, less-hidebound and more youth- ­oriented society. Majority of the country’s population is made up of youth, and more than 12% of the labour force is unemployed. Salameh (2016) contends that the new changes will help the country become more attractive to foreign investors and empower the country’s own youth in the facing of growing underground extremist groups and limited opportunities for the youth. The revenue from oil has been declining since the prices of the product plummeted in 2014. A drive to economic diversification will help the country overcome vulnerability that arises from the reliance on oil alone.

Reforms imposed by Prince Mohammed bin Salman prove essential to Saudi Arabia’s alignment with the global social and economic changes. Diversification of the economy is vital to help the country overcome economic challenges in the face of declining fortunes from the oil industry. Changes in the social and cultural welfare of the country are essential since alleviation of rigid religious policies gives women much-needed freedom they deserve.


Hypothesis

This research has developed the below hypothesis to act as a guide when conducting the research.

  • Hypothesis: The repression of political opposition by authoritarian Saudi monarchy is not centred on Islamic fundamentalism but the response to radical movements challenging the strength behind the authoritarianism including US imperialism and modernization.

Most of the political opposition parties in Saudi Arabia are concerned about the increased US imperialism and secularization of the society which is against the Islamic fundamentalism which is the source of the countries national pride. The hard stance taken by the monarch against political activities in the country is influenced by the desire to maintain the strengthening forces behind the authoritarian government which are the US imperialism and oil capitalism.

The US and other foreign forces have been a significant role in supporting the Saudi Arabia monarch to crush the slightest political opposition be it peaceful, conservative or radical.  In the aftermath of radicalization that led to the infamous 9/11 terrorist attack in America, the Western forces including the US and UK have supported the monarchy in a large to repress any political opposition using any means possible.  While the legitimacy of the authoritarian government is supported by the clerics, who have been the force behind the conservative religion that is the central to national unity, increased US imperialism has made the monarch to drift away from the Islamic Sharia laws that are fundamental Islamic religion.  The democratic space in the country has been repressed to impede the political opposition a chance to thrive in the country. In the aftermath of the Arab spring, the monarch employed harsh measures intended to crush the slightest form of opposition in the country.

Research Objectives

The primary aim of this research is to explore which factors affect the success of the Saudi Arabia opposition parties in light of authoritarian monarch government that uses all forms of powers to outlaw political opposition in the country.  The study will explore how a wide range of factors empower or disempowers the political opposition in the country.

Objectives

  1. To determine how the political opposition thrive in the face of authoritarian government.
  2. To establish western influence in Saudi Arabia affects the success of the opposition political parties.
  3. Determine whether international financial supports the success of political opposition in Saudi Arabia.
  4. To determine how lack of democracy hinders political opposition activities in Saudi Arabia.
  5. Establish how monarch has learned how best to deal with opposition groups since the Arab Spring.

Research Questions

Research questions help in providing the direction that the research will take. This particular research will use the following research questions

  1. To what extent does lack of democracy affect political opposition, Saudi Arabia?
  2. How has the Arab Spring affected success or failure of political opposition in Saudi Arabia?
  3. How have Western countries affected political opposition in Saudi Arabia?
  4. Which is the main factor that affects the success of the Saudi Arabia political opposition?
  5. How is international financial support shaping the future of political opposition in Saudi Arabia?
  6. What are the achievements of political opposition parties in Saudi Arabia?

The following chapter presents the methodology of the main study in order to examine the research questions.

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

The study employed a qualitative content analysis approach.  The study extracted data for specific variables of interest including a year of publication, type of publication and availability of the content. The study selected freely available information on the internet which included publications by major digital newspapers, print, websites and scholarly articles. The study employed a systematic coding approach to code a large volume of text to identify to identify patterns or themes and meanings from the texts. The coding approach was developed based on the conventional qualitative content analysis approach. A systematic generation of theory (The Theory of Saudi Arabia Political Opposition) was used to develop codes directly from the texts.  

The code names developed in the study included

  1. Attitude from the West
  2. Democracy
  3. Constitutional monarchy
  4. International financial support
  5. Political openness
  6. Historical hostility among opposition’s groups
  7. Saudi authority suppressing for each group since the Arab Spring

Analysis

While the Saudi Arabia monarchy regime prohibits formation of political opposition outfit in the Kingdom, a number of political parties including The Islamic Umma Party, Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA, Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) and Ghanem Almasarir have been formed in protest to a wide range of issues they do not agree with in the monarch. However, the political outfits have experienced a mix of failures and success in the light of the authoritarian government for a wide range of factors.

Suppression by Saudi Authority after the Arab Spring

The Arab Spring played a significant role in influencing regime change in large part of the Arab World including countries such as Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Bahrain.Saudi Arabia remained untouched by the Arab Spring by employing successful counterrevolutionary mechanisms. However, the Arab Spring played a vital role in promoting the formation of political opposition in the Kingdom that had experienced limited political opposition activities for several decades (Mabon 2012). The Umma Islamic Party is one of the parties whose position was predominantly influenced by the Arab Spring in 2011. It is regarded as the first opposition political party in Saudi Arabia since it was the first to defy the order that forbade the existence of political parties in Saudi Arabia. Party came into being after nine Saudi scholars, and political activists came together to fight for political reforms. The party was made public on February 9th, 2011. Unlike other organizations that came before and after it, it had a very organized structure with leaders and a well spelled out (Alsalem 2011) . In light of the  Arab Spring that was informed by the need to bring an end to the Authoritarian Regimes in most of the Arab States, The Umma Islamic Party also wanted an end to the authoritarian Saudi monarch regime. The Arab Spring had succeeded in toppling oppressive regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Bahrain and it played a significant role to buttress formation of the first political movement in the Saudi Arabia soil. All the other political movements were operating outside Saudi Arabia including the Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA and Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) which are based in U.K.

Since early 2011 the monarch has taken stern action against Islamist and liberal critics without clear reasons behind the arrests and other measures taken by the government. Open criticism of prominent princes or the ruling family as a whole and overt challenges to the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam predominant in the country drew particularly harsh responses (Mabon 2012). The Islamic Umma Party (Hizb al-Umma al-Islami) which formed a political opposition in the state despite being banned by the monarch government experienced the wrath of the government (Bsheer 2018). The Saudi ruling family assumed that the Islamic Umma Party (Hizb al-Umma al-Islami) wanted to topple their regime despite the party having moderate demands. The founding members of the Islamic Umma Party were arrested but later released on the condition that they would refrain from any form of political activities in the future. Any activist or individual who made any form of provocative demands in the aftermath of the 2011 Arab Spring faced heightened state repression liberal activists such as Muhammad al-Qahtani and Abdallah al-Hamid.

Democracy and Constitutional Monarchy

The Saudi monarch government employs authoritarianism which comprises of a ban on political action, frequent resort to police violence, opacity, and disinformation. Use of excessive power to crack down dissidents through waves of arrests and imprisonments has impacted negatively on political opposition in Saudi Arabia (Matthiesen 2012). Additionally, there is the use of specialized Criminal Courts that use the counterterrorism regulations to repress pro-reform activists and peaceful dissidents. A sheer criticism of the regime through media interview or social media warrants arrest and imprisonment. Arbitrary arrest s of political party leaders and activists coupled with systematic violations of due process and fair trial rights have made it hard for the political opposition to thrive in the country (Ménoret 2016). The authorities detain arrested suspects for months, even years, without judicial review or prosecution with the sole intention of crapping down any form of political opposition. The intellectuals behind the formation of the Umma Party were arrested following the formation of the party. Other party leaders including those of the Movement of Islamic Reform in Arabia, MIRA and Tajdeed Islamic Party (Islamic Renewal party) had to operate from U.K in fear of being arrested and lack of democracy in Saudi Arabia. Ghanem Almasarir, one of the major activists and critics of the Saudi Royal family, operates from U.K. for fear of being arrested.

The Western Attitude

The Al Saud have consolidated their grip on power, against popular protest and unrest, with the aid of the U.S. oil company Aramco and of international security cooperation. In the past decades, the Saudi state has benefited from the French, British, and U.S. input in the design of a brutal repression machine. All the opposition parties in Saudi Arabia are against the Western Imperialism adopted by the royal family in governing the country.  The increased involvement of the Western Powers such as the U.S.A, U.K., France and Germany in the affairs of Kingdom has led to increased modernization which is interpreted as the secularization of the society and western imperialism by the opposition parties (Madawi 2015). In the aftermath of the terror attack on the American soil in 9/11, the American government supported the Saudi Arabia government in the fight against terrorism with the intention of suppressing any form of radicalization in the country. Consequently, the Suadi Arabia government adopted the 2014 terror laws extended the definition of terrorism to cover the peaceful protest, political speech, and organized action (Rosie 2012). The kingdom now has full power to crush any protest or criticism, no matter how peaceful or constructive it may be. Ultimately, the Saudi Arabia opposition today is organized principally on Islamist foundation which is the sense of national pride (Beranek 2009). However, the support of the western powers Saudi Arabia has been able to crush every form on the opposition in the country making opposition activities hard to thrive.

References

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Bsheer, R. (2018). A Counter-Revolutionary State: Popular Movements and the Making of Saudi Arabia. Past and Present238(1), 233-277.

Beranek, O. (2009). Divided we survive A landscape of fragmentation in Saudi Arabia. Crown Center for Middle East Studies (Brandeis University), (33).

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Mabon, S. (2012). Kingdom in Crisis? The Arab Spring and Instability in Saudi Arabia. Contemporary Security Policy33(3), 530-553.

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Matthiesen, T. (2015). The domestic sources of Saudi foreign policy: Islamists and the state in the wake of the Arab uprisings. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1-12.

Matthiesen, T. (2012). A” Saudi Spring?”: The Shi’a Protest Movement in the Eastern Province 2011–2012. The Middle East Journal66(4), 628-659.

Ménoret, P. (2016). Repression and Protest in Saudi Arabia. Middle East Brief n101.

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Teitelbaum, J., & Pipes, D. (2001, Holier than thou: Saudi Arabia’s Islamic opposition. Middle East Quarterly, VIII, 75. Retrieved from http://mdx.summon.serialssolutions.com/2.0.0/link/0/eLvHCXMwtV1LS8NAEB4sXhQPtdZXFRYPeiiRJJs0qeChSqUtKIXW4q1ski0G-sK0YP-9M9k8WoWiBy9LMoFN4Bu-nZ18swPAzVtd-8YJHnfqnm5L0_YE-pAua74bGH4g6xgxcKlElvbgrfbScLp534vc9q_Aow2hp0LaP4CfTYoGvEYXwBGdAMdfuUFrNqZ6EkqQkxhoSRmAnlgGYbXxITxSylK-nvwi9KuzearhWo9Zn-McRrUporgGc1MD2pcYs449odold2bR-zIj-m44VySk6tg3EgxGJlVLORFZQKtbqmtGSpqDdru95h7WGgeqTijJaoo3dIb5JAj9xb2caq-9AhS4Q70m3IdOtmY6tq1KIZJX_VgZ4-W-X4R9KgFh6r_JIezIaQnK6kCVFbtmdFqviDsir0pwspFTZZm4sATFRFuI1oRBj4ArPBjhwQiPOxajwRQaNxFLsGA5FmW4emr2H1ta-q1D4VGCyl9EQ9z5Y7RlmOYxHAgqVpgu4qLG4BQYxrVSd6WQ3BhZPpe4y7E81-COJWlL7p5BZcuM51ufVmAvB_ECdkfoyPISCpPg8wvYVCOc

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Logistics And The British Defeat

Logistics And The British Defeat

Introduction

When war broke out in America in 1775, the British forces were not logistically prepared. When compared with the rebelling colonies the logistics system used by the British appeared efficient superficially, but it had deep cracks and fissures that would eventually cost the British Empire the war. Its soldiers were never short of food or water, and military supplies were sufficient for all the men involved in the battle. Logistics of this scale would not be witnessed for almost two centuries until the Allies invaded North Africa during the Second World War. The major failure of the logistics system was in its resupply network, which should have been identified and rectified as the war wore on (Bowler, 24).

Logistics And The British Defeat

This was not done and therefore the downfall of the British Army in the war began. A close examination of the manner in which the British Empire supplied its troops both in the colonies and from the mother country reveals how the absence, or presence, of crucial materials can affect military expeditions. Eventually, the absence of adequate supplies in reserve, coupled with rampant corruption, insufficient transportation and cautious generalship led to the defeat of the British Army (Christopher, 34).

Logistical Issues

  1. The Treasury Department

The British Treasury Department was mainly responsible for the maintenance of food supplies, including forage for the animals used during the war (Bowler, 65). It is worth noting that during this time, men fought primarily on horseback and depended on horses for mobility and flexibility. Their horses had to be fed.

  • The Navy Board

This board was responsible for transporting clothing, cavalry and infantry supplies, tents, hospital supplies and other camping equipment (Bowler, 16). The Navy Board was to ensure that troops were well equipped to go to war at anytime, anywhere.

  • The Ordnance Board

            Responsible for engineers, guns, artillery, and other ordnance stores including ammunition.

The Treasury Department was ill prepared for the beginning of the war. At the time, the British Army was a colonial garrison force, and there was no central command since England lacked the general staff to serve there (Buel, 39). There were no army officers in the command hierarchy above the level of regiment before the start of the Revolutionary War. The Navy Board can be said to have been better organized than the Treasury, mainly because Britain was a major naval power. At the time, Britain had the largest and most powerful navy in the world. Since 1689, the Quartermaster General together with his department had been existent in the British Army; and the department was its most senior service department.

             In contrast to today when the duties of quartermasters are strictly logistical, the Quartermaster General of Britain in the 18th century was charged with other duties. He was what would be known today as a chief of staff to the Commanding General, and therefore issues of supply formed just a section of the many spheres of work he engaged in. He was charged with coordinating other staff departments like operations and intelligence, and also assumed command of troops whenever the army launched an attack. This clearly indicates that he had little chance of focusing all his attention to the supply of food and forage to the personnel and animals involved in the war in America (Huston, 42). After the Quartermaster General’s Department, the next in line was the Commissary. The head of this department (the Commissary General) was a civilian.

            The number of staff who served under him in the colonies steadily grew to 300. The purchase of fresh food supplies became the biggest supply problem for the British Army. The Commissary Department was riddled with so much corruption and the very first Commissary General (Daniel Chamier) was also dishonest apart from being incompetent. His biggest failure was the inability to file accurate reports on the total number of personnel in the colonies who were in need of rations. The downside was that the Treasury relied upon the figures given to it by Mr. Chaimer as a basis for shipping requirements and ration acquisition. The total requirement Chaimer sent to England was regularly short by an average of 4,000 rations. In addition to this, officers, refugees, children and wives and other people who were supposed to receive a share of the rations delivered to the army (Buel, 96).

            The Barracks Master General had other duties apart from his main task of ensuring that all troops were properly and adequately accommodated in the garrisons.

            He was charged with supplying them with stoves, cots, tents and other camping equipment they required to survive in the field. He was also responsible for supplying fuel, which was mainly firewood until the discovery of coal which replaced firewood in the later stages of the war. Just like the majority of the British Army’s service support corps, the Barracks Master General always used his position for personal profit. In the colonies, Engineer and Medical departments formed the last of the support staff under the leadership of the Commanding General.

Corruption And Profiteering

            Corruption and profiteering were very rampant in the British logistics system. The service corps was dominated by individuals who had the least concern for ethics and good leadership. It is however worth mentioning that under the British Law at that time, a majority of practices that we define as legal today were not crimes (Huston, 39). They were never considered to be ethically or morally wrong during the 18th century.  It was common for commissaries to keep the “fifth quarter” of slaughtered livestock for themselves. This “fifth quarter” was the tallow, hide and the head, and they would be sold for profit by whoever managed to lay his hands on them. Although such behavior was tolerated, it eventually contributed to the development of more unethical practices.

            For example, the contractors in Britain who supplied food for shipment to the colonies regularly provided quantities of cereals like rice or flour that were considerably less than the required amount. There could be as much as 10% shortage in a single barrel of flour (Bowler, 187). There is no single record of what happened to the millions of bags, crates, barrels, boxes and other containers sent to America.

            Majority of the consignments arrived in a poor state and probably would have been thrown away, but it is impossible to imagine that the commissaries could have sold them for profit. The other policy which was frequently abused by the Commissary General and his staff involved the cattle that were captured during battle or raids on farms and homes (Christopher, 81). Fresh meat was always in great demand, and the army had no reluctance in paying each soldier one dollar for every head of cattle that was brought to the camps. The Commissary General routinely took advantage of this and paid soldiers the dollar they were supposed to be given and then sold the cattle to the army at their current market value. They consequently made huge personal profits from this dishonest practice. The reimbursement of civilians for commandeered supplies was not spared either. It was transformed into an income generating venture by the men in the commissary.

             If the army had to commander supplies from local farms, the troops were supposed to give each farmer a receipt to take to the commissary in order to get their reimbursements. They however rarely got their money (Buel, 94). This could be because they were afraid or because they knew reimbursement was unlikely to be given to them. What the commissaries did is they took the money meant for the reimbursement and later reported that it had been claimed. Transportation in the British logistics system was also corrupted. According to a parliamentary commission that reviewed the expenditure of public money in 1781, the majority of horses and wagons that were hired to provide support to the British Army in the colonies were owned by officers who worked in the department of the Quartermaster General.

            Funnily enough, they were the same officers who were charged with the responsibility of conducting the hiring process (Huston, 27). This would be a blatant violation of ethics in today’s ethical standards.

Conclusion

            The experience of the British in the American Revolutionary War is very important for the militaries of today. Although numerous changes have been witnessed in the area of military technology and organization in the last 200 years, American forces still have a hard time dealing with many of the similar problems that hampered the resupply effort of the British. Logisticians in force projection armies still have to solve the problem of delivering supplies over long distances, relying upon the support of the host nation and conquering the constraints of resource. The most important thing to note is that when logistics is not planned in detail, military operations still suffer a great deal.

References

Bowler, R. Arthur. Logistics And the Failure Of the British Army In America 1775-1783. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.

Buel, Richard. In Irons: Britain’s Naval Supremacy And The Revolutionary Economy. New          Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.

Huston, James A. Logistics of Liberty: American Services Of Supply In The Revolutionary War

            And After. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press, 1993.

Christopher Hibbert. The American Revolution Through British Eyes. New York: Avon Books,    1997.

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Pre-American Revolutionary Period

Pre-American Revolutionary Period

During the eighteenth century, many Americans enjoyed a lot of liberty than other people in the world. They went on to pay low taxes and boycotted imports. In the American Revolution, slaves were not affected by the tea taxes or stamp duties. The black population was the main race used in the revolution, uprising and slavery. They were also used in the mobilization of revolutionary groups.

Pre-American Revolutionary Period

In particular, the duties and taxes imposed, did not affect the black population and the slaves, but Gary Nash one of the successful historians states that “Even as the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s created an intense interest in the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century roots of America’s race problem, many historians continued to deny that the founding fathers could have done anything about slavery.”pg.5

[1]Many historians have stated abolition of slavery in different southern states would lead to the breakdown of political parties. In Gary Nash’s words, “In offering a political explanation for the failure of the revolutionary generation to abolish slavery, historians of our era have usually cited the fragility of the new nation.”pg.6. The leaders’ certainty to attempt stopping force abolition on the southern states would destroy the politically aware union that was united during the war and after.

When social upheaval was experienced in the towns and cities where the blacks lived, black people got a chance to flee. According to estimates done by Thomason Jefferson, thirty thousand slaves had run away when the British invaded Virginia in 1781. Some of the slaves united with the black regiment of Virginia’s governor Lord Dunmore’s, where the governor promised them freedom in exchange of the slaves disobeying their masters[2]. Some of the slaves and blacks were recruited to join guerilla bands fighting the patriots. In search of freedom, many of these blacks and slaves succumbed to diseases, malnutrition and battle wounds. Towards the end of the American Revolution, many black loyalists were exiled to Jamaica and others to Florida. The black community in America came from people who were slaves during the revolution.

They were either liberated by state law; others rebelled or ran away and managed to stay in America. The population of African Americans increased during the nineteenth century. While this population was complete of diverse racial origin before the war started, many blacks can now express the role done by free men. In addition, the black population reminds the white population that the color of a skin cannot dictate abilities or freedom of a person.

During the American Revolution, slave rebellions supported the theory of Governor Robert that any emergency dividing the white people could enable the slaves to rebel.  A white man in New York heard slaves collaborating on how to get gun powders for an insurgence plot. In Georgia, slaves formed a revolution in December 1774 killing four whites. They were later captured and burned to death. Few slaves with little education were able to create a written challenge to the bondage hypocrisy between wars for freedom. In Massachusetts, a group of black people petitioned the state assembly and Boston’s governor in 1773 conveying gratitude for the slave abolishment attempts saying that the people of Boston seem like they have being actuated by justice principles. In 1775, the African American population from Bristol and Worcester appealed to the Committees of Correspondence for their freedom[3].

In their response, the Worcester County Convention passed a resolution stating that any human race enslavement had being abolished. Some white and black abolitionists kept wider appeals that addressed the general public and state assemblies. In Virginia, the black population signed up with the British army to attain freedom. More than five thousand black people were serving in colonial militias and involved themselves in revolution battles. Crispus Attucks, who was a black man, was among the five colonists who were shot dead in the Boston massacre[4]. In Bunker Hill, black soldiers were among the people who fought at the first main revolutionary clash. Among them was Salem Poor from Massachusetts.

He was a slave and acquired his freedom in 1769 through a lot of struggle. Other fourteen officers in the same regime like Salem Poor petitioned the Massachusetts general court to mention poor as one of the brave soldiers who had behaviors of an experienced officer. Even thought there were more than four thousand colonist who fought at Bunker Hill, Poor was the only one whose existing records indicated that he was singled out for his extraordinary services. When the war came to an end, one white person wrote a biography remembering his terror when the Bunker Hill hostilities started. He saw bodies of soldiers lying on the Boston Common.

One of the things that heartened him was a Negro’s body wounded and blood running down the body. The Negro was saying that the he was not minding of the wounds he had. In 1775, Continental Generals informed the congress there were Negroes in various regiments in Massachusetts. Slave commanders like George Washington showed fears and at the determination of representatives who were from South Carolina an area with a lot of slaves, the black population was barred from joining the Continental Army. When times became tougher for the colonists after fighting for a year, the Continental Congress reevaluated. Washington agreed by allowing some northern states to plead with black people[5].

In addition, in 1776, Washington re-authorized mobilization for blacks who had experience in military. In 1777, as the situation of Continental Army became worried due to disappearances from nasty encampments from the winter, mobilization was extended for all the black population[6]. When the British Military shifted its operations in the black territory in the late 1778, upper south states unwillingly accepted the black population. Gordon Wood (118) stated that “the Virginia army and navy were full of African Americans and slaves served as alternatives for their masters in North Carolina and Delaware.” Authorization of slave mobilization was done in Maryland and the black populations were also recruited.  

In conclusion, the white population in the lower south states was firmly in opposing the mobilization of the black population who were working in the rice swamps. Even when the congress offered 1,000 dollars for every slave they mobilized in 1779, south Carolina and Georgia went on to refuse. They tried to reimburse more than twice the 400 dollars they presented to slave owners in Rhode Island. Even when a large population of the blacks remained to be poor, the success stories were termed to be powerful symbols for the whole black community[7]. The white population questioning racial equality and black populations’ ability saw the success. When the revolution took place, South Carolina and Georgia hardened their dependence on slave labor and the strong resistance to any kind of mobilization. When hundreds of mulattoes fled the revolution in Haiti for America, the black population did not populate the lower south until 1790s.

Bibliography

Gary, Nash, Race and Revolution (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1990), 1-10.

Virginia Declaration of Rights, 12 June 1776, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/vabor.htm, accessed 26 October 2012.

Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 118.


[1] Gary, Nash, Race and Revolution (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1990), 1-10.

[2] Virginia Declaration of Rights, 12 June 1776, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/vabor.htm, accessed 26 October 2012.

[3] Virginia Declaration of Rights, 12 June 1776, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/vabor.htm, accessed 26 October 2012.

[4] Virginia Declaration of Rights, 12 June 1776, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/vabor.htm, accessed 26 October 2012.

[5] Virginia Declaration of Rights, 12 June 1776, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/vabor.htm, accessed 26 October 2012.

[6] Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 118.

[7] Virginia Declaration of Rights, 12 June 1776, http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/vabor.htm, accessed 26 October 2012.

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Malcolm X and His Contribution to Islamic Religion

Malcolm X and His Contribution to Islamic Religion

Malcolm X was a human right activist and Muslim minister of African-American origin. He was born in May 19, 1925 and was assassinated at the age of 40. Malcolm X was popularly known to many as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, the Islamic name he gave following his commitment to the fundamentals and Islamic ideologies (Sabrina 4). While growing up among the whites in Michigan, Malcolm X started developing mistrust for the white Americans following the believe that it was the white terrorist who murdered his father while he was six years (Turner 61-2). This incident marked the transformation of this little man as he turned to crime upon moving to Harlem. At the age of 20, Malcolm X was arrested and taken to prison for criminal offense (larceny, breaking, and entering). During his prison life, Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam; a movement founded by Wallece Fard in the 1930s (DeCaro 76). He rose to the ranks to become a leader in the Nation of Islam. He opted for the name X, believing that he had lost his true lineage following forced slavery on his African ancestors. For years, Malcolm X featured as the public face of this controversial Islamic group that believed and worshipped Allah and also lived to Mohammed’s teachings. In protecting the Nation Islam’s teachings, Malcolm X strongly advocated for Black-White separation, scoffed at the American’s civil rights movement, and espoused black supremacy by emphasizing on white-black integration (Kly 77).

Malcolm X and His Contribution to Islamic Religion

Following the mysterious disappearance of Fard, Elijah Muhammad ascended to the leadership of the movement. The Nation of Islam became very powerful and influential, especially among the African-Americans who had been released from prison and where in search of help and guidance (Turner 54). The group preached strict adherence to moral codes and relied on fellow African-Americans for guidance and support. The primary goal of this movement was not integration, but empowering the blacks to establish their own churches, support networks, and schools (DeCaro 85).  After making his personal conversion to Muhammad, Malcolm X’s talents were recognized by Elijah, making to become the spokesperson of the Black Muslims. Having been disillusioned with Muhammad and the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X led repudiation to the Nation of Islam and its fundamental teachings (Sabrina 6-7). It was after this walkout that Malcolm X embraced Sunni Islam. Following years of Middle East and African travels, Malcolm founded the popular Organization of Afro-American Unity and the Muslim Mosque, Inc. upon his return to the U.S.

While emphasizing the concept of Pan-Africanism, black self-defense, and black self-determination, Malcolm X disavowed the then prevailing racism. His repudiation of the Nation of Islam prompted his assassination by a three-member team from the Nation of Islam movement. Malcolm X significantly contributed to the growth and development of Islamic region in the U.S. and other parts of the world (DeCaro 98). Through his inspirational and eloquent prose style, he electrified urban audiences, thus, impacting on their religious choices. His contribution to the spread of Islamic religion was facilitated by the establishment of the Mecca pilgrimage in 1964, a place that has since attracted Muslim faithful (Kly 65-6). His mission in supporting the spread of Islam came to an end on February 21, 1965 when the rival Black Muslims group arranged for his gunning down while he was leading a mass Muslim rally in Harlem (Sabrina 9). Although Malcolm X is no more, his Islamic ideologies and philosophies lived to be embraced by the Black Power Movement and the rest of the Muslim followers globally. 

Works Cited

DeCaro, Louis A. Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity. New York [u.a.: New York Univ. Press, 1998. Print.

Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press, 2008.

Sabrina, Zerar. Malcolm X’s Ideology: From the Puritan/Nation-of-Islam Doctrine to Independence Rhetoric. GRIN Verlag, 2010.

Turner, Richard Brent. “Islam in the African-American Experience”. In Bobo, Jacqueline; Hudley, Cynthia; Michel, Claudine. The Black Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, 2004.

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The Gulf Security In The 21st Century: Military, Economic And Energy Dimensions

The Gulf Security In The 21st Century: Military, Economic And Energy Dimensions

Introduction:

Dawn of 21st century has brought number of challenges for the modern world to face. These challenges are security, economic and social development and role played by main stake holders of the world. 20th century was a century of great revolutions and development of nations; Industrial revolution and bringing world together after two world wars World War 1 and World War 2 are the major land marks achieved by world. By development of nations it is meant end of colonial rules in entire world, progress both industrial and social achieved by European countries after facing devastating effects of both World Wars and at last the formation of ideological states. The nations or countries which are based on the ideas of a religion and race are regarded as ideological countries or nations. Present examples of such states are Republic of Israel and Islamic Republic of Pakistan, These two countries or nations are formed on the basis of religion and are these religions are extremely opposite to each other. Formation of these nations is also courtesy of both World War 2 and finishing of Colonial Rule respectively (Madden and Gillick, 2012). Two international platforms formed during twentieth century. First one named as League of Nations which was formed after 1st World War and second United Nations. The formation of both organizations was to provide entire people of world on single plat form and other target was to reduce or finish possibilities of any deadly war (Madden and Gillick, 2012). 

League of Nations failed to achieve its goal and the result was a deadly World War 2 which swept away entire human rights and is responsible of thousands of deaths. There was a need to define set of basic human, civil and women rights again internationally. As a result of 2nd World War world had two super powers in the shape of United States of America and Russian federation or USSR (Madden and Gillick, 2012). This situation provided the basis for formation of United Nations. 

Although there were millions of lives wasted during both of these wars, yet these wars introduced man kind to ever developing engineering industries known as Telecommunication and Weapon Engineering. The concepts of wireless communication and missile technology were introduced in these wars. Even Internet was first introduced by United States Department of Defense. Most of the fundamental concepts regarding wireless communications were introduced in these wars. 

            United Nations (UN) after its formation redefined basic civil rights. The laws regarding Prisoner of Wars (POW), War crimes, state terrorism and governing issues were also defined. The bipolar world gave birth to a unique war faced by world as both super powers of the World did not use their own lands for the purpose of this war but they used lands of other nations for fighting and showing their military and diplomatic strengths. This war known as Cold War introduced a new dimension of battles between the nations. Diplomatic war-fare and using resources of other countries or nations for own interest were the concepts introduced during that era (Madden and Gillick, 2012). As examples Invasion of Afghanistan by Russians and Vietnam War started by United States of America.  The results of these both wars were devastating for both invaders and the people which were invaded. There were precious life of Afghans and Vietnamese lost during these wars. In Afghanistan only the ratio was 10:1 for Afghans. The struggle and resistance provided by these two nations is a living example until now. Both super powers beside there all military might lose to a very weak enemy (Madden and Gillick, 2012).

            Cold War era divided almost entire world into two banks Russian and American respectively. Both polarized group of countries were in continuous state or threat of war all that time (Madden and Gillick, 2012). Korea is still divided in two parts known as North Korea and South Korea respectively. North Korea is still believed to be supported by Russians and South Korea is supported by United States of America. In the similar way Gulf states were also divided into two blocks American and Soviet. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates fall into the American block. On the other hand countries like Syria and Jordan fall into the Russian block. Middle Eastern states are consisting of Muslims as majority population. Muslims are bounded to each other through their religion and social values. There were disputes created for sure between Muslims as they were divided into two main religious sectors Sunni and Shia. Yet the bound existing between them socially is very strong as most of their values despite of their other differences are same. 

Cold war also gave birth to a new concept which is known as Proxy War. Proxy war commonly refers to the phenomenon in which two opposing parties use resources and land of a third party in place of fighting with each directly (Alterman, 2013). The case of Russian invasion of Afghanistan is a perfect example of proxy war. Both super powers fought on the land and lives of Afghani people. Russian invaded Afghanistan in the search of warm waters or cost line of Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Pakistan is a neighbor of Afghanistan. United States of America used resources and lives of Jihadis (militants present in Afghanistan were fighting Russians and that time). Pakistan provided logistic and weapon support to Jihadis and Americans as it wanted to save its cost line from invading Russian forces. Thus Pakistan, United States of America and Russia fought their wars on the land of Afghanistan. As a result of Afghan invasion and successful resistance of Afghan and Pakistani people; Russian along its idea of capitalism was defeated. Russia was broken into numerous states (Alterman, 2013). Still there are number of proxy wars going on all around the world. 

 

Middle East (Gulf) and Role of big Powers

Middle East or Gulf is the area which lies in a region of planet where eastern and western worlds meet each other (Utah, 2010). This region has a great importance from ancient times as this was the region which is called land of prophets. Three main religions of the world Christian, Jewish, and Islamic have their sacred places in this region. This fact makes this region one of the most sensitive regions of the world. The religion Islam is dominant in the region as almost all of the states except Republic of Israel belong to Muslims (Utah, 2010). There is also an interaction of both western and eastern civilizations caused in Middle Eastern region. The interaction of both civilizations resulted in the division of the world into west mostly controlled by Christian faith and East controlled by Muslims in some parts. Greater area of world is still under the rule of Christian faith. West in form of Crusades succeeded in reducing the influences of Islam in Europe. West is also considered as winner because as a result of Crusades the power of knowledge (Scientific and artistic developments by Muslims) was transferred from East to West. Moreover the results helped both civilizations considering the fact that due to crusades both East and West and civilizations of both sectors of the world opened and became flexible for each other. This helped in flourishing of trade and business all over the world creating economic harmony.

Major countries present in the area are Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Oman, Yemen and Egypt. Egypt is a region which has traces of oldest civilizations in the world. Pyramids of Giza are one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This country has a rich religious and geographical history (Utah, 2010). Egyptians used to have different concepts regarding creation of the world. According to one of the beliefs the whole world was a part of a big dark ocean. Suddenly a large portion of land appeared with reappearance of Sun god. Sun as a god is of great importance in ancient Egyptian religion as it created all things. 

Era of Pharohs is an important part of Ancient Egyptian history. Family of Pharohs established a strong state of Egypt which they ruled. As ancient Egyptians religion is based on environment surrounding them. These Pharohs were worshipped by most people of Egypt. Pharaohs also considered themselves as family gods made to rule people. Pharaohs were actually warlords gaining power with passage of time. These warlords so called gods provided protection to people and saw to their needs. Egyptians start thinking that the god name as Pharaoh had support of all other gods. Gradually all other gods vanished expect Pharaoh and his family. Pharaoh became center of Egyptian civilization. Pharaoh led religious rituals performed to withhold Egypt. Pharaoh was not only the god-king of Egypt but also responsible for order of the land. Pharaoh was soon thought to be divine god-king having support and power of all other gods.

            Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) was formed by Ibn-e-Saud with the help of wahabi (a sector present in Muslims) militants. After capturing the most of Arabian Peninsula he announced the formation of his Kingdom in 1933. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has most important and most sacred shrines of religion Islam in it in cities of Mecca and Madina. King of Saudi Arabia is considered to be most strong and valued Muslim leader in entire world. One can easily assume that in order to keep good relations with Muslim World one has to keep good relations with Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This gives this country a central and deciding role in Muslim world (Utah, 2010). Discovery of oil in the region made this country more important all over the world. Until 2001 before 9/11 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) was the largest oil producer of the country. Now there are 50,000 princes in the kingdom which have to control a relatively small population of almost 40 million people. 

United Arab Emirates (U.A.E) is country which was part of British Empire until 1971. It was the only country in the region which did not stop the oil production and kept the industry running even rest of oil producers refused to do so as a war tactic. Most of the Arabs are considered as backward and reluctant towards adopting new technologies or ideas and even they are reluctant to provide women rights and economic opportunities (Utah, 2010). 

Carmathians formed a powerful sheikdom and army conquered Mecca. After the the disintegration of the whole kingdom the people which were mostly military trained turned into pirates. These pirates were strong enough to threaten the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman in early 19th century. This hostile situation of the region encouraged British to capture the area who in 1820 enforced partial truce and a permanent truce in 1853 (Parent, 1). United Arab Emirates coast line then called pirate coast line was renamed as Trucial coast line by British. British Empire which had no interest in the area as they only entered the area to provide security to the ships carrying merchandise from west to east and vice versa.

U.A.E has played its part quite effectively in order to remove such an image of Arabs in eyes of other world. According to a survey conducted in 2007 there was a literacy rate of 90% among the U.A.E national women. U.A.E introduced Arabs to modern technology for example Etisalat is the first company of world to win mobile phone service license in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The people and government first in Arabs of U.A.E are now aware of the fact that the oil which is providing them all energy requirements is soon going to be consumed in next few decades. Keeping this problem statement in mind Government of U.A.E commits to attain a target of 7% dependence on the renewable energy sources till 2020. The Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company known as Masdar has already sent tenders for international companies to invest in the field of renewable energy. Recently, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has founded and U.A.E is awarded as a home of IRENA in Abu-Dhabi’s Masdar City (Malta, 2012). 

Abu Dhabi that holds 94% production of the oil is an emirate that welcomed foreign private companies to invest in oil finding and production sector. Abu Dhabi also has a reputation in business world as it was the only member of OPEC which did not nationalize the holdings of foreign investors during the wave of nationalization. This wave swept global oil and gas industry heavily in mid 1970’s (Malta, 2012). 

All the emirates comprising U.A.E lie in the region where climatic changes are very less. Most of the time weather is hot in the whole Arabian Peninsula. Days are much longer in the region as compared to whole of the world. There is a problems faced by most of the western countries in designing of buildings while they are to be operated on solar energy. The orientation of building should be in a way that it gets greater intensity of sun throughout the day. Generally houses with house tops oriented towards west cannot install solar energy system. This orientation problem is not faced by U.A.E as the whole region faces maximum energy of sun all the year (Malta, 2012). 

The main land mark achieved by U.A.E is the rights and opportunities available for the female population of U.A.E. Arabs are generally considered as reluctant towards giving enhanced development opportunities to their female population. U.A.E is again acting as a pioneer in this field. The literacy rate of females in U.A.E is 90% as of a survey conducted in 2007. The number of females enrolled in the higher education programs are 24% more than males enrolled in the programs. United Arab Emirates have taken a great leap towards religious development of females becoming pioneer to train females as “Muftis” (Mufti is a term associated with a person who can interpret Islamic laws and can enforce them) (Malta, 2012). 

Kuwait and Iraq are the countries which have an important part in the history of Middle East. Iraq’s war trained military invaded Kuwait and declared it as a province of Iraq. Other countries of the region including Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (K.S.A) and delegates of Kuwait asked international community to play their part in this situation. United States of America responded with sending half a million troops to Saudi Arabia in order to push Iraqi forces out of Kuwait which were under the command of Saddam Husain. This whole situation resulted in first American military base in the region. The presence of American military in the region played and will play a crucial role in the future of region (Utah, 2010). 

            Role played by the big powers or countries in the region is quite evident from history to present and in future of this region. It is due to the mutual planning of big powers that state of Israel was formed in the region. Formation of Israel and disintegration of Syria gave a deep wound to Arab including Egypt. As a result state two deadly wars known as Arab Israel War of 1967 and 1973 were fought in the region. Egypt and Syria were main partners in both of these wars backed by rest of Arabs and weapons provided by Russia. On the other hand United States of America supported Israel. At one point there was an extreme tension created all over the world as religious sectors of Muslim world (mostly consisting of oil producers) pressurized their governments to stop the supply of oil to the western countries and their allies which were fighting in the support of Israel. This stop of oil was to be used be as a war tactic. The involvement of Syria and Russia in these wars almost brought this world to the verge of a nuclear war (Utah, 2013). The dispute between Arabs including entire Muslim world was on the basis of religion. Some of the biggest shrines of both religions are present in Jerusalem. Jerusalem is regarded as holy city in Christian faith also. The temple or church or the place where Jesus was born and crucified exist in the Holy City of Jerusalem (Utah, 2013). 

Arab- Israel wars were one of the most important incidents and their results have a strong impact on the shaping of history of entire world. Stake holders of Arab Israel war and the powers backing them up were crucial not only deciding the fate of these wars but fate of major countries involved in this war also. Second Arab- Israel war ended in October 1973.  The eighteen days of war between the Arabs had the loss of 10,000 men, 2300 tanks, and 475 aircraft for the Arab forces. The Israeli forces bear an estimated loss of 2,400 soldiers, 200 tanks, and 115 aircraft. It was the time when Cold War between two big powers of the world that is United States of America and Soviet Union was at its peak. Soviet Union and United States of America were supporting Arabs and Israelis respectively. There came such a tense time in the war that the both super powers alerted their nuclear facilities present all over the world. This situation brought the world at the brink of a deadly nuclear war which fortunately did not happen (Martin, 1998).

 In second phase of these wars there was an amazing coordination between the all the stake holders of the war.  The united Arab front undertaken by Egypt and Syria was deceptive to the Israeli forces and its intelligence agencies. The Egyptian Plan was very good, unique and hidden beautifully; took the Israeli forces and its intelligence agencies by surprise. The plan utilized intelligent combat and weapon engineering techniques, which were responsible for defeating the Israeli forces battlefield plans in initial days. The Egyptian military engineers used high-pressured hoses to go through the strong sand canal walls. Other technique used by Egyptians was use of heavy artillery while crossing beyond the Israel’s defense lines. 

The Egyptian forces were provided with protection using an air defense to shelter them from artillery and air strikes from the Israeli forces, which included the use of highly sophisticated Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), and anti-aircraft guns. This gave a clear indication of Russian involvement in these wars (Martin, 1998). 

                The embargo resulted due to the crises of crude oil during that time reintroduced the balance between oil consumers and oil producers. Participants of both wars and the global powers behind them were totally exposed. Overall these wars played their role in order to end era of Cold War during that time. Bi-polar world and its division done by both super powers raised concept of independence among different nations. An organization comprising of nations which were not a part of either Russian or American block was formed. This organization named as Common Wealth Organization played an important part for the purpose of removing polarities in the world (Common Wealth, 2014). 

            Since its formation 53 countries became members of this organization almost from every major part of the world consisting of richest poorest countries of the world. All members of this organization have tried to be given equal importance regardless of economical and military structure. This is the reason why this organization flourished greatly since its birth (Common Wealth, 2014). 

            21st century started with a new war in which almost the entire world is participating. The ongoing war on terror started with devastating incidents that took place on 9-11-2001. The involved parties in this continuing war and the reason for their involvement lie in the 20th century. Russia as explained earlier invaded Afghanistan in the search of warm waters. Islamic republic of Pakistan neighbor of Pakistan has a rich cost line on a very important trade route (Alterman, 2013). Pakistan from birth is in the American bank and even today playing an important role in the war against terrorism as an allied state of United States of America (Alterman, 2013). 

            United States with help of Pakistan started empowering the resistance movement that was going on in Afghanistan by Afghan people known as Jihadis. Jihad is an Islamic term which is commonly referred to Holy War believed by Muslims. This slogan of Jihad was used by United States of America in order to gain sympathy for this struggle of Afghan people against (although encapsulate target of United States of America was to repel Russian federation out of the area and later disintegration of Russian federation) occupied force of Russia. Pakistan had three targets to achieve in this long war. First Pakistan wanted to protect its precious cost line from Russian forces. Secondly since the start of the invasion there were almost 40 million people migrated towards Pakistan known as Afghan refuges. Pakistan had not enough economic resources to accommodate these refuges so they wanted to get help from international community on this issue (Fukuyama, 1982).

            Last and most important target wanted to be achieved by Pakistani administration of that time was a military one. Pakistan had dispute since its birth with its neighboring country Republic of India. Pakistan needed a great amount of military aid from western countries especially United States of America as India was receiving a huge amount military aid from Russian federation or known as Soviet Union (Fukuyama, 1982). This happened also as United States provided huge amount of military assistance and financial aid of $40 million per week in order to repel Soviets (Fukuyama, 1982). 

            As Americans were propagating the image Jihadi’s as Holy Warriors. This compelled Muslim militants from all over the world to join hand with Afghan Jihad’s. After with drawl of Soviet forces from Afghanistan; America also withdrew from the region which made these Muslim militants to settle in Afghanistan (Fukuyama, 1982). These Muslim militants after a civil war in Afghanistan formed first fundamentalist Islamic state threatening west especially United States. Afghanistan for almost two decades provided refuge to biggest terrorist group of world Al- Qaeda (Fukuyama, 1982).

            Al- Qaeda lead by Osama-bin-Laden belonged to one of the deepest and oldest allied country of region Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Osama first came on to the scene when he presented his offer to Saudi Royals during Iraqi invasion of Kuwait wanting to call his army which he led in Afghanistan to repel invading Iraqi forces. He was also not in favor of the American offer of half million troops. His offer was rejected by the Royals of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Fukuyama, 1982).

            On rejection of his offer he took the Royals into the streets labeling them as anti-Islamic and agents of Israel in public meetings. Osama resided in Afghanistan developing and gathering resources for his organization called Al- Qaeda. General attitude of Muslim public was with Osama-bin-Laden. They considered him as leader of mujahidin (Holy warriors). These Mujahidin were enforced in numbers by newly formed Muslim countries of central Asia and backed emotionally and financially by the fact of its anti-Israel and anti-American views (Fukuyama, 1982). With the dawn of new millennium Al- Qaeda was also strengthened to a huge extent and was present in almost every part of the world. Right at the start of 21st century 9/11 incident happened which jolted the whole world especially posted the question on the most secured country that time (Fukuyama, 1982). United States of America known as the most secured country and its intelligence agencies as most efficient agencies in the world was put under critical analysis due to the fact that there were 4 planes hijacked in a single day. Also there was another fact that all the Hijackers of planes that were used in attacks got their training in United States of America (Fukuyama, 1982).

            It was a devastating factor for the relation of United States with Gulf countries as 15 out of 19 hijackers responsible for 9/11 incident were Saudi nationals. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is still one of the earliest and strongest allies in Middle East. This strong bound that is existed between two countries is shown by the fact that in 2001 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was the biggest oil producer in the world and United States of America was the biggest oil consumer in the world (Martin, 1998). This challenge is so far countered effectively by United States and its allies. Osama- Bin- Laden met his death in 2011 during a covert operation conducted by United States Special Forces in Pakistan (Fukuyama, 1982).   

            Apart from Afghanistan; Iraq was also a threat for United States of America and its allies in Middle East. Iraq was a strong military power in the region enriched by the wealth of oil. Iraq was suffering from dictatorship of Saddam Hussain (Hinnebusch, 2007). Iran and Iraq War which continued for a decade was the most devastating and destructive war; took millions of lives and same numbers of serious injuries were caused (Hinnebusch, 2007). Enriched with oil wealth and support of the main political figures of the country Saddam Hussain proudly attacked Kuwait and Iraqi forces occupied Kuwait (Hinnebusch, 2007). 

            Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has its border with Kuwait. Saudi Royals were against the Iraqi government. Saddam also kept threatening Arab countries to rule over the issue of supporting America and its allies making issue of Israel as a base for it (Hinnebusch, 2007). This scenario increased anger in Arab countries against Iraq and after the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq; Kingdom of Saudi Arabia with help of half million American troops pushed Iraq out of Kuwait. After the first gulf war designated as operation desert storm by American military resources Iraq was under strict sanctions imposed by NATO, United States and United Nations for over a decade. Iraq was forbidden to sale its oil and its whole air space was declared as no fly zone by Americans and allied forces. Only a small amount of oil was taken by international community in the name of oil for food program. Life of common man in was affected greatly due to sanctions imposed by international community. It is still a question to be answered by international community including platform of United Nations that Why huge population of Iraq suffered due to actions of a single person? (Hinnebusch, 2007)

            Saddam Hussain used state terrorism as a tool to suppress his opposition parties. He used chemical weapons on his declared rebels “Kurds”. Kurds commonly refers to a tribe which was not Arab by birth and their forefathers are narrated to be Sala Din and his army. End of Khalafa system in Muslim world resulted due to defeat of Turkish armies supporting Germany in First World War. Muslims divided themselves in to two main race sectors called Arabs and non-Arabs. Arab people are referred to a group of tribes living in Arabian Peninsula or Persian Gulf from ancient times. Non-Arabs are other races which lived outside Arabian Peninsula. Kurd residing in some areas of Turkey and Northern Iraq were not considered as part of either of this group. Kurds are still facing raciest behavior by the governments, administrations and people of Turkey and Iraq. When it was decided to invade Iraq in 2003; these Kurds join hands with United States of America and its allies in order to over throw the throne of Saddam Hussain. 

Another factor which caused the downfall of Saddam and its Iraq was religious. Muslims are divided into two main religious sectors called Sunni and Shia as narrated earlier too. Iraq is a country which contains biggest shrines of Shia sector of Islam. In fact Shia sector got his birth in the desert of Iraq. Saddam Hussain belonged to Sunni sector and tried to suppress Shia majority in many parts of the Iraq. Saddam Hussain faced a great opposition from the parts of country which had Shia population dominant. Still there are many Shia groups acting independently apart from Sunni resistance group in Iraq against American occupation of their country. For example Mehdi Militants (Shia militant group operating in Iraq) dented United States of America and its allies in early days of the occupation. Other resistance movements in Iraq are of Sunni militants or ex- Iraqi army officers.  Other stories of Saddam’s cruelty are also famous. Iraq showed its interest in developing nuclear weapons or weapons of mass destruction in late 1990s. This interest taken by Saddam prompted international community because if Iraq enabled to produce weapons of mass destruction it would have caused a major disaster for the allied states present in Gulf such as Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Israel (Mearshimer and Stephen, 2003). 

            There was a continuous propaganda against Iraq and Saddam Hussain and his interest in weapon of mass destruction all over the world by Americans prior to occupation of Iraq in 2003. United Nations inspectors for detecting weapons of mass destruction cleared Iraq and gave solid statement that there are no weapons of mass destruction found at Iraq. Moreover prior to operation Iraqi Liberation in 2003 Iraqi defense missiles were destroyed by United Nation’s inspector due to continuous increasing pressure of United States (Mearshimer and Stephen, 2003). War started by America and its allies in 2003 against much weak Iraqi state is regarded as blood for oil war in opinion of many people. This claim seems to be true owing to the fact that there are no weapons of mass destruction yet discovered in Iraq. Iraq war in the eyes of many people is a useless war which has wasted many precious lives and has given birth to a bigger wave of terrorism (Mearshimer and Stephen, 2003). Iraq was proven to be more stable and peaceful in the era of Saddam Hussain as compared to situation after seen in Iraq after the occupation of American lead allies (Mearshimer and Stephen, 2003). 

            There is a great debate going on in the world that this world is going to face a clash of religions soon. It is generally referred to tension rising between United States along with its allies and religious sectors of Islam. There is a need of revisiting the policy which is adopted by United States of America. This revision of the policies is nicely explained by speech US president Barak Hussain Obama to United Nations General Council meeting. This speech gives a clear view of America’s revised policy over the issues of clashes between religions and civilizations. 

In this speech president Obama explained the attentions of US government and people regarding this hot issue. The main points in Obama’s speech In UN General Council are; America in its foundation has ideas like free speech and free religion. 

            President Obama delivered a clear message of U.S.A’s stance on the propagation of love and peace throughout the world. America is one of the countries which as nation have accepted people belonging to all religions and races. It is accepted by Obama in its speech that increased military presence and merely a speech cannot stop extremism. The ultimate goal wanted to be achieved by United States of America and other peaceful nations present all over the world is the change in heart of people. Hearts of the people present all over the world should contain love for each other as it is the only solution to all of the major tensions in modern world. Love should be a common religion for people all over the world to follow.

            Lauren Markoe calls this speech as “Obama Doctrine on Religion”. According to religious study experts the points that can be achieved from the speech under discussion are, Blasphemy should be tolerated, Religious tolerance is a two-way street, turn the other cheek (as propagated by Obama’s own faith that is Christian faith. America according to Obama in this speech is a one nation under one God; this should be the rule to be followed by all the people of the world as a single nation under single God. The danger of extremism was also addressed by the president during his speech. 

            Apart from United States of America other big forces are also involved in the shaping the future of the region. Russia has supported Arab countries during both Arab Israel wars and these wars brought the world near to a nuclear war. Especially events in second Arab-Israel war shaped very much the present condition and to some extent future of region also. China has become one of the biggest and strongest economies of the world and potential super power in the future. China has taken control of Gulf’s market also same as it gain control of European and American markets. Now days Gulf markets are also full of Chinese products. There is a phrase saying plan and leave it to great Chinese. It is quite true; China once considered as laziest nation in the world has taken control of world’s economy in much shorter time. China began to make diplomatic relations with Arabian states since 1955. China also supported Arabs in Arab Israel Wars but could not establish its influence in the region due to reason that China itself was experiencing a great revolutionary social change (Wakefield and Levenstein, 2011).  

            The interest of China in Persian Gulf is shown by the coordination provided by Chinese to Islamic Republic of Pakistan in order to build a sea port. Government of Pakistan has agreed to provide Chinese a space in their sea port (known as Gawadar Port) for the purpose of establishing a military base. According to the contract with Pakistani government by the end of 2015 there will be 80,000 Chinese soldiers stationed at Gawadar port. The location of this port is at a crucial point on the trade route between Middle East and Eastern Asia. Once functional this port will provide a cost effective alternative for ships to use this port instead of using United Arab Emirates ports. This military presence of China has raised a concern in other big powers involved in the region such as United States, United Kingdom and Russia (Wakefield and Levenstein, 2011).

            From the implementation of liberal reforms in China the interest of China has been shifted from Iraq towards Iran. The Islamic revolution that broke in Iran in 1979 and start of Iran Iraq war redefined the situation of the whole area. While Iraq and Iran were fighting on the basis of race with each other China was establishing strong grounds in the region for its economic and energy interests (Wakefield and Levenstein, 2011).

            China took a very diplomatic position in the Iran-Iraq war. During the whole era of war China took an extremely neutral position in this whole situation for years. China tried to start negotiations between both countries diplomatically while on the other hand it sold heavy weapons to both parties. The 9/11 terrorist attacks in United States of America started a new wave of diplomatic relations all over the world. China supported U.S.A despite all of the disputes existing between both countries in America’s war on terror in Afghanistan. The Iran’s nuclear program uncovered in 2002 and American led attack on Iraq in 2003 changed the region to a large extent. China reviewed its relations with Persian Gulf states and more diplomacy is poured by China in the region. China focused on its relations with major stake holders of Middle East such as Kingdom of Saudi Arabia since 2001(Wakefield and Levenstein,  2011). 

            Strategic importance of Saudi Arabia and presence of United States of America in the region was observed by China. The need of United States to have supply of oil at reasonable price and its war with Islamic extremists was of great concern to world as well as China. America’s unnecessary attack on Iraq affected the relation of United States and Saudi Arabia to some extent. A terrorist attack in Saudi Arabia in 2003 and presence of Wahabi militants in the kingdom brought Riyadh and Washington closer again. But Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is now more concerned with its relations with rest of the world apart from United States of America. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is also trying to play a important part in the present situation of the region leading the Arab countries in most of the issues faced by Middle East now days (Wakefield and Levenstein,  2011). 

            These all factors are aiding in the purpose of China and its relations with Middle East countries. So far China has strong ties with all the Middle Eastern country. To keep image of China as a friendly nation in the eyes of Muslims China has strengthen its relations with only nuclear power of the Muslim world Islamic Republic of Pakistan. China also focused on its relations with an emerging Islamic power Iran. The rise of Iran in twentieth century as a strong power is the most significant event in Gulf and whole Middle East. China has developed strong relations with Iran because it is a known fact that Iran will be a potential leader of Muslim world in the near future. This is due to the fact that two worst enemies of Iran are thrown away by United States with the dawn of the new millennium. Saddam’s government in Iraq and Taliban government in Afghanistan are removed by biggest competitor of China that is United States itself (Wakefield and Levenstein, 2011). So we can say that in 21st century it will be soon seen that China will be a big stake holder in the region. 

            After China role of another strong economic group that has developed and evolved strongly during the past 50 years is European Union. This group of nations has crossed capita of $6,650 at the start of 21st Century (according to a survey conducted in 2007). At the start of 20th century Europe’s life expectancy was only 45% which has increased to 70% by the end of year 2007. Literacy rate in 1907 was 80% in England and France and no more than 40% in Eastern Europe. In 2007 literacy rate all over Europe ranges from 95 to 100% (McDougall, 2007). European Union has a true potential to be a super power in near future. 

            Population of European Union has outnumbered present super power United States of America. The European Union has the biggest trade volume of the world and this volume is promised to be increased in near future. Euro combined currency of European countries is a great success and has became one of the leading and strong currencies of the world. It is amazing to know that at the start and mid of the last century Europe was victim of two World Wars. It takes considerable amount of time when talking about the recovery from a single war. Europe surprisingly not only survived devastating effects of both World Wars and has made a considerable amount of progress too (McDougall, 2007).

            Europe has established strong relations with almost entire countries of Middle East in order to boost its trade. Great powers of Europe like Great Britain are part of American led Iraqi invasion. Europe has done another great thing that is it has propagated its image as a peaceful and friendly place in the minds of common Muslims and under developed countries unlike United States of America. United States due to its military expeditions has lost its peaceful image in the minds of many Muslim nations as well as in many under developed parts of the world (McDougall, 2007).  Strong ties of European Union with most of the markets including China and Middle Eastern countries have enabled it to have a considerable amount of influence in Gulf Corporation Council (GCC) too. Also the fact that United Arab Emirates was a part of British Empire and has made considerable progress under Union Jack gives a friendly impression of not only British but other European countries also. This can be shown by defense deals made by U.A.E with England and France in 1994 and 1995 respectively (McDougall, 2007). British Empire ruled was ruling all over the world in the twentieth century. The main goals ought to be achieved by these rules were the total use of natural and human resources of the occupied countries. Sub-continent is still considered as “golden bird” by world was conquered by British Empire in 1857. British enter the sub-continent for trade. At that time the whole area of subcontinent was lacking in a strong centralized government. All regions of sub-continent consisted of small empires of different people and continuously fighting with each other. Trade factor used by the British’s East India Company, acted as a good recon for British. Due to this recon British know nearly all about the strengths and weaknesses of the rulers of the area aiding in capturing of whole region. On the other hand in sub-continent rulers were engaged in mutual disputes and at the time of invasion did not helped each other, in-fact aided British in order to capture the land of enemies (McDougall, 2007).

            Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) with the purpose of bringing together countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates was formed in 1981. It was the organization first established to save Gulf countries from devastating effects of Iraq Iran war. Since its formation and besides all the shortcomings Gulf Cooperation Council has survived and nevertheless attained some mile stones. It is moving towards the project of common market and common currency. Moreover it has started to play an important part in Gulf politics as well as in sub-Gulf regions too. There is a question asked that Is GCC a security organization or not? GCC was formed announcing goals of “co-ordination, integration and co-operation among all member countries of the organization”. In 1976 there was a call made for writing a defense agreement. But the proposed formula was not agreed by many Persian Gulf states (Koch, 2010). 

            Since 1981 right from the formation of GCC the concerns over security issues have not been matched by necessary progress. To make sure that there is a coordination regarding self-defense existing between member countries; GCC has made an attempt to put forward security and military agreements. The first step was taken in this regard was the announcement for first collective military force in the area. The decision to establish “Desert Shield Force” in Arabian Peninsula in December 1986 was initially called as a new era in military and security co-operation in the area. In 1990 this “Desert Shield Force” was tested and then failed when Iraqi forces captured Kuwait. Kuwait was a member of GCC organization. As a result in December 1990, “Doha Declaration” was issued in which member countries identified this failure of GCC and security arrangements made by it in order to stop Iraqi invaders or to protect Kuwait from invasion (Koch, 2010). 

            After Gulf War there was also a slogan of joint defense agreement which like “Desert Shield Force” is not yet received any significant success. Major reason for this situation is that each member state of the organization focuses on the implementation of its own defense policy and own national interest. So the dream of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) to play its role as an important security organization is still seems to be in distant (Koch, 2010). 

Another important factor for this failure is the interference of the external powers in the region. This interference existed in the area from ancient times as there are Holy Places of three major religions in the area including Islam, Christian faith and Judaism. It was on its height in the mid of 20th century and is still continuing from the dawn of 21st century to this date. American lead invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan happed with the dawn of the new century. Israel’s attempted invasion of Lebanon just happed in 2007. Due to such intense interests of foreign powers in this area they also tend to keep the states present in the area far from each other and not letting them on to get together on single platform on single agenda (Koch, 2010). 

It is a known fact even admitted by United States itself that its military presence in the Gulf region is only to protect Israel from intended Islamic aggression. When American led invasion of Iraq happened in 2003; this factor was even admitted by many military experts and analysts America has fought this useless war for the protection of Israel. There was no solid evidence available that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. Before the successful invasion of Iraq in 2003; Iraq faced numerous sanctions imposed by international community for almost 12 years. The condition of common population in Iraq was miserable and there were programs such as oil for food to provide Iraqi population some consumer goods by United Nations. Medical supplies were not available for the most of the population. All the defense system including Air Force of Iraq was destroyed from 1st Gulf war to 2003 (Wasting of scud missiles by Iraq on demand of United States and United Nations). Why there was a need to attack such a weak enemy? The only reason was the fact admitted by military analyst was that Iraqi government was against Israel and aggression of Israel against Palestine (Mearshimer and Stephen, 2003). 

Another debated heavily done with the start of new century was the debate about Iran’s Nuclear Program. It is a known fact Iran and other gulf states have some ideological clashes. Most of the Gulf States and Muslim countries are considered to be in American block throughout the cold war and afterwards too. Instead of following other Muslim countries and going into the American block Iran choose to be in Russian block from its birth. The possibility of a nuclear armed Iran placed the whole world into a state of shock. It is a nice way to pressurize Iran through sanctions and diplomatic means instead of taking any military action (Dobbins, Kaye, Nader, and Wehrey, 2012). Military operation in case of Iran is a difficult way to follow as the situation of Iran is quite different from Afghanistan and Iraq. There was some sort of anti-government elements present in Iraq and Afghanistan which aided greatly in the military action against them. Iran on other hand since Islamic revolution is proven to be one of the strongest economies as well as democracies of the world. It can be shown by every presidential elections held in Iran; even the last election held in Iran had 98% turnout. There is very small amount of opposition existing in Iran as compared to other occupied countries. 

Again United States of America and Israel are in favor of military action against Iran. An Israeli and American attack on Iranian nuclear facilities will trigger possibilities of another global. Iran in its neighbor like Islamic Republic of Pakistan has strong religious and social bonds between them (Dobbins, Kaye, Nader, and Wehrey, 2012). It will also act as a catalyst for Iranian government and administration to develop and deploy more nuclear weapons. After such an attack Iranian influence will increase (influence of Iran is already increased to a large extent in neighboring countries like Pakistan and Iraq since American invasion of Iraq). Shia population of almost entire Muslim world idealizes Iran and any aggression against Iran will trigger more hostility for United States of America and its allies. So this modern and civilized world should otry to find a diplomatic and civilized solution in the case of Iran’s nuclear program. This century was supposed to be started on a good and peaceful note. On the other hand it began in a much bloody manner from the incident of 9/11 to unrest in Middle East still going in Gaza Strip (Dobbins, Kaye, Nader, and Wehrey, 2012).

Conclusion

There are many landmarks achieved by human kind in past two centuries. Industrials and scientific developments made this world a better and lovely place to live now and daily advancement in the field of engineering, communications and medicine will bring this world much closer and a nicer place to live in near future. 

As there were great developments and land marks achieved by human kink in 20th century. This world also fought two unnecessary World Wars. 20th century had many revolutionary changes for humans. Industrial revolution changed Europe which was considered as one of the darkest places of the world to one of the brightest places of the world. There was surely many discriminations made on the basis of religion, race and sex at the start of 20th century. Even in the most developed countries like United States of America and United Kingdom people were divided on the basis of color up to the end of 20th century.

There is surely a relation between Ethnicity and Nationalism as most of division of the people of the world is based on the ethnicity only. One race of people considers all others inferior to them. This causes formation of groups and organizations and can result in the major division of society. Division of people on the basis of race like Arab, White Americans, Black American, African Americans and Canadians is a common example of it. The movement that took place in subcontinent was dependent lately on the basis of religion. While in Africa majority of people were striving for basic human rights and freedom from European aggression they were facing. Even modern American society is also divided on the basis of race. All the movements of African people came to success in latest eras of 20th century as there was a much less focus on the races; only movements that had religious ideologies to empower them succeeded in 20th century. Even today people are ruled in the countries like Zimbabwe and Namibia due to their black ethnicity. Nelson Mandela is considered as an icon in this regard as he was the only black person succeeded in obtaining equal rights for black and white people and laid foundation for free Africa.

 

Black revolution or struggle of black people in order to achieve their basic human rights in United States of America under the command of Dr. Luther King became successful in 1989. This was the situation in one of the most developed nations of the world; once can easily imagine about situation faced by people living in the rest of the world. Similarly in Europe also people were discriminated on the basis of color and race. Even in United Kingdom or England people faced racist behavior of the authorities on the basis of race. As an example even in 1999 numerous cases of race discrimination were recorded in United Kingdom. 

As explained earlier in the introduction 20th century saw division of humans on the basis of ideas and religion. Colonial rule of British Empire finished in many parts of the world. Rules regarding prisoners of war (POWs), basic human rights and women rights were also redefined in the mid of 20th century. International community was provided with a common plat form in the form League of Nations first and then United Nations. Religious diversity and its affect on the progress of human kind were also addressed by organizations. There were states made in the name of religion. States of Israel and Islamic Republic of Pakistan as explained earlier in the paper were formed on the two different and opposite religious ideas. According to Collin Powell, former US army commander in Middle East and former foreign minister in Bush administration the situation in 20th century resulted in formation of two ideological states that are almost impossible to be broken known as Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Republic of Israel; foundations of these both nations had religion in their basis containing ideas that are opposite to each other

 

Muslim system of Khilafa came to an end in the start of the 20th century courtesy of World War 1. Arabian Peninsula was divided into many small states. Most of the Peninsula was captured by Ibn e Saud and he laid the foundations of an independent Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He did so with help of strong religious sector in the region known as Wahabi’s. Persian Gulf or Middle East has huge significance religiously and socially. Biggest and most sacred shrines of three greatest religions of the world Islam, Jewish and Christian faith are in the region. 

Discovery of oil in the Middle East brought revolutionary changes in every aspect of daily affairs of the whole region. Political, industrial and strategic importance of the region was increased to a large extent. Big powers focused on their relations with Middle Eastern countries. The purpose of improving these relations was to fulfill energy needs which were heavily dependent on the oil. Cold war was also fought on the Middle East land and was thus had a huge affect regarding shaping of the present and future of the region. 

Two Arab- Israel wars were fought on these lands. These wars are a part of cold war or in other words proxy war for the between United States of America and Soviet Union. Soviet Union also invaded Afghanistan and Jihadis fighting against the Russian occupation were supported by United States and its allies. With significant help of Islamic Republic of Pakistan United States was successful in defeating Soviet Union in Afghanistan resulting in disintegration of Russian federation and end of cold war. 

Iraq Iran war continued for a decade and as a result of these wars many precious lives were lost. Iraq suffered from dictatorship of Saddam Hussain who in its military pride invaded Kuwait and it resulted in first Gulf War designated as operation desert storm by American. As a result of this war first American military base was established within the Arabian Peninsula. This war also created Al-Qaeda and Osama-Bin-Laden and turned out to be basic factors in 9/11 attacks on United States of America. This resulted in Afghan war started from the dawn of 21st century to present day. Iraq after facing strict international sanctions for a decade was invaded by America and its allies in 2003. There was no proof of the causes which were claimed by United States in order to attack Iraq. 

Owing to political, strategic and economic interests Gulf States tried their best to get together on a single plat form in shape of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), economically, socially and for defense of the region. But all of these struggles failed due to priorities given to individual national interests as compared to common interest of the region. The involvement of other big powers of world was also a cause of failure in these struggles.

Another debate rising in the region started by knowledge of Iran’s nuclear program as it was uncovered in 2002. The ways how to tackle the issue of Iran’s nuclear ambitions is under discussion for a considerable amount of time. There are two options put forward by different powers of the world one of them presented by United States of America and Israel to take military action against Iran; other is the enforcement of economic sanctions on Iran. But it is to be noted that case of Iran is much more different than that of Afghanistan and Iraq. Iran is a powerful democracy and has strong religious and social ties between its neighbors like Pakistan and entire Shia population of Muslim world. It has strong defense and economic relations with Russia too. 

Another remarkable achievement of mankind is finishing the division on the basis of race in many underdeveloped countries and continents. Africa which was called as “dark continent” by European people as most of the interior portion of Africa was unknown to them. British Empire spread southward in region from Egypt 1875 and northwards from Cape Town present in this age a part of South Africa. Africa is the region of the world which is enriched with huge natural resources was captured and full advantage of resources was taken by British. A popular example given about that time African mentality level is socks full of diamonds were exchanged for a lighter by African people. British and other European countries not only used natural resources of the continent but also used human resources or man power extensively. African people that are black in color were taken as slaves in large quantities at that time by British, other Europeans and Americans too. This huge amount of enslavement and full exploitation of the people even depriving them of basic human needs raised many social activists from almost every corner of the world. Leader like Gandhi (great leader of sub-continent and regarded as founders of Republic of India) also participated in slave movement of Africa.

Nevertheless political, social and economic importance of Persian Gulf and countries in it cannot be neglected. This region has played its part in the social and economic development of the world greatly. For this region to play an important part in 21st century it is required by these countries to come together on a single plat form economically, socially and culturally. Saddam, Qaddafi and Mubarak regimes which were a continuous threat for the development of region are now finished. Moreover international community should also respect the religious values of the region and should try not to interfere in the internal political issues or developments. By mutual understanding and respect this world can become a much nice place to live on for us and our future generations. 

 

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The diamond exchange (global issue)

Blood Diamond

            For a great many years, precious stones have been a globally perceived image of adoration, sentiment and marriage. Notwithstanding, a segment of the world’s diamonds originated from regions where war and carnage are a consistently event. In a few nations, agitator gatherings utilize the benefits produced using the offer of diamonds to purchase weapons for their military operations. In this paper, I will acquaint you with “clash” or “blood” diamonds and the revolutionary gatherings that mine them. I will likewise take a gander at the horrific encroachments on essential human rights that these gatherings confer on an ordinary premise. I agree that the trade of blood diamonds was a major cause of civil wars in Africa. 

            The Diamond issue has been a problem. The diamond exchange has been a major dubious issue for a long time on the grounds that the precious stone industry has been financing weapons and supporting viciousness in disputed areas in Africa (Bieri, 2010). The illicit brokers as far and wide as possible purchase unlawful diamonds in return for supplying weapons to African revolts that thusly drive youngsters, men, and ladies to succumb into their requests by using violence. I believe that through bringing issues to light in the consumer about the illicit diamond exchange, the Kimberly transform and the confinements on precious stone clash zones, the diamond trade will get to be systematized and the purchase of legitimate diamonds may give numerous profits to different locales as far and wide as possible (Vlachos & Muir, 2010). 

            They have contributed to African Civil Wars. Precious stones have energized three of Africa’s most merciless wars. A 2001 United Nations cover the “Unlawful Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth in the Democratic Republic of Congo’ reasoned that the clash in the DRC “has get to be primarily about access, control and exchange of five key mineral assets: Colton, precious stones, copper, cobalt and gold.” (Vlachos & Muir, 2010) The abuse of characteristic assets by remote armed forces, the report said, “ended up deliberate and systemic. Ravaging, plundering and racketeering and the constitution of criminal cartels are getting to be typical in involved regions. These criminal cartels have implications and associations around the world (Vlachos & Muir, 2010).

            Prior, diamonds assumed a part in fuelling the Angolan liberation development. 

In the first example, they served to raise African mindfulness and hatred of Portuguese pilgrim principle. As late at 1954, Diamang, the Luanda-based diamond organization possessed by Portuguese, Belgian, British and American engages – was opposing calls to raise the wages of its 17,500 specialists from $2.45 a month (Smillie, 2010). The proposed pay expand would have spoken to ten for every penny of the organization’s profit installments that year.6 The liberation war started seven years after this question, and as it warmed up, precious stones fuelled Portugal’s exertions to battle back. Diamonds have an evident fascination for dissident developments and their suppliers. They are a low-volume, high-esteem item. They are profoundly convenient, and very regularly, they are promptly available. The genuine diamond industry has been covered in mystery for eras, there is next to no administration oversight on the global exchange, and there is a lack of steady, dependable exchange and creation information that may be utilized for following purposes. No less than 20 for every penny of the unpleasant diamonds that are sold every year are, in somehow, ‘illegal’, giving an instant spread for the ‘clash precious stones’ that are the subject of current global interest. Add to this the way that a large portion of the world’s creation or more is mined in nations with precarious or cryptic governments, and there is a just about secure formula for stretched and extended guiltiness. 

            Curbing organizations cannot stop the trade any longer. Sickened by these discoveries, (Smillie, 2010) the United Nations and numerous different associations began taking a shot at an approach to control the precious stone industry and force an assertions that furnish the purchasers with accreditations that demonstrate that these diamonds have been legitimately delivered, sold and sent out through legitimate channels which have been endorsed by a power, and are not clash diamonds that help terrorist acts and push brutality in revolutionary areas. This control over the stream of illicit diamonds is forced by giving an affirmation through what is known as the Kimberly process (Ross, 2006The Kimberly process was “Made in 2003… and obliges accreditation of precious stone fares as “no conflict” diamonds” (Ross, 2006).

            A substantial extent of the precious stones of Sierra Leone, Angola and the DRC are alluvial. With the breakdown of lawfulness, or with the presence of a radical armed force, alluvial precious stones turn into an appealing wellspring of income. The supplies required to “mine” them – actually a superior statement would be ‘uncover them’ – is insignificant. No specific aptitude is needed, and the operation can be done on a sporadic premise, as time and security permit. This is not to propose that all alluvial diamond mining nations confront certain clash. Yet security is dependably a real issue where alluvial prevail. Namdeb endures extraordinary misfortunes from its shoreline mines. Brazilian mining is overflowing with robbery, and formal (Bieri, 2010). Guinean precious stone mining has been ceased totally on more than one event in light of the legislature’s powerlessness to control unlawful diggers. For well-organized renegade gatherings working in a security vacuum, diamonds are very nearly free for the taking (Haufler, 2010). 

            All through the precious stone chain, security is dependably an issue. Notwithstanding the stealing and low-level burglary of diamonds from mining destinations, precious stones have been the object of numerous composed and brutal robberies as the years progressed. One of the most ideal methods for managing this, particularly where little firms are concerned, is by making the development of precious stones as hidden as could reasonably be expected (Bieri, 2010). 

            Absence of government regulation helps the clash precious stone wonder in two ways. At the most essential level, three states with alluvial precious stones have found themselves progressively not able to control their precious stone regions, ceding and once in a while taking them back from revolutionary armed forces. Pretty much as critical an issue, in any case, is the absence of legislative oversight in the nations that exchange, prepare and consume diamonds (Smillie, 2010).

            Illegal diamonds have constantly entered the nation, nonetheless, from different spots. All that is required, it appears, is a little plane and a sham South African mine, for South Africa to constitute a prepared open door for washing an alternate nation’s diamonds. Sneaking precious stones into and out of South Africa is not new. Depictions of carrying operations in the 1950s can be found in Ian Fleming’s genuine 1957 book, The Diamond Smugglers, and in A.w. Cockerill’s Sir Percy Sillitoe; The Biography of the Former Head of Mi5. Sillitoe was employed by De Beers in 1954 to secure something many refer to as the International Diamond Security Organization, to end the pirating that was widespread at the time.23 It appears to be little has changed: An UN Expert Panel Report noted in November 2001 that “Colton, precious stones and gold from the Democratic Republic of Congo are constantly snuck into South Africa, either through its permeable northern fringe or through its 4,000 unmonitored airstrips.” (Haufler, 2010)

            Illegal diamonds have constantly entered the nation, on the other hand, from different spots. All that is required, it appears, is a little plane and a sham South African mine, for South Africa to constitute a prepared open door for washing an alternate nation’s diamonds. Sneaking diamonds into and out of South Africa is not new. Depictions of pirating operations in the 1950s can be found in Ian Fleming’s true to life 1957 book, The Diamond Smugglers, and in A.w. Cockerill’s Sir Percy Sillitoe; The Biography of the Former Head of Mi5. Sillitoe was contracted by De Beers in 1954 to secure something many refer to as the International Diamond Security Organization, in request to end the sneaking that was wild at the time.23 It appears to be little has changed: An UN Expert Panel Report noted in November 2001 that “Coltan, diamonds furthermore gold from the Democratic Republic of Congo are continuously pirated into South Africa, either through its permeable northern fringe or through its 4,000 unmonitored airstrips.” (Haufler, 2010)

Efforts to control the Problem

            The exertion to stop clash diamonds started amidst 1998, with an UN Security Council determination on Angola. From that point forward, NGO’s, the diamond business, government officials, singular governments and the United Nations have gotten to be occupied with an expansive and coordinated exertion to manage the issue. Advance has not been smooth, nor has it been direct in nature. There is a tangled web of circumstances and end results, with fierce conflicts, activities covering, tempers flaring and desires climbing and falling through a long arrangement of intergovernmental gatherings, startling disclosures and extreme media interest (Haufler, 2010).

            Beginning in 2000, diamond bourses as far and wide as possible started creating codes of behavior. From Bombay and Ramat Gan to Antwerp and New York, all cautioned of earnest outcomes ought to any part be found managing in clash precious stones. The precious stone industry is little, they said, and anybody ousted from one bourse would never be permitted into an alternate. By 2001, few organizations had been named in UN Security Council Reports as having foreign made diamonds under false announcement into Belgium. Past a letter of censure, then again, nothing happened. Industry pioneers said that there was no lawful meaning of a ‘clash diamond”. (Vlachos & Muir, 2010) Also separated from three particular UN Security Council resolutions, there is no law against importing precious stones from, Gambia for instance, regardless of the fact that Gambia was “named and disgraced” in an UN report and regardless of the possibility that Gambia has no diamonds.42 Importers from Gambia and other non-delivering travel nations, so the new business contention goes, are not violating any law – in any event not any Belgian law. While the diamonds may not be clean, there is no ban on Gambian or Congolese precious stones, so even from a pessimistic standpoint, these are basically merchandise whose birthplace can’t be dead set. An organization importing such products can’t be cashed out from a diamond bourse, in light of the fact that without verification of law-breaking, such a move could be noteworthy in a court of law. 

   This regulation has helped undermine the unlawful precious stone exchange and breaking point budgetary assets to the renegades by banning the diamonds they created as illicit and not sellable to legitimate retailers, and diamond makers as far and wide as possible. The lawful diamonds are currently furnished with confirmations that permit the makers to affirm that these precious stones have not been piece of the illicit diamond exchange, and retail clients are urged to be furnished with such declarations after purchasing diamonds from merchants. Therefore, fundamentally lessening the quantity of clash precious stones. The World Diamond Council gauges that 99% of all precious stones are presently clash free.

 

References

Bieri, F. (2010). From blood diamonds to the Kimberley Process: How NGOs cleaned                                 up the global diamond industry. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd..

Haufler, V. (2010). Governing Corporations in Zones of Conflict: Issues, Actors and                           Institutions. Who governs the globe, 102-130.

Ross, M. (2006). A closer look at oil, diamonds, and civil war. Annu. Rev. Polit.       Sci.9,                         265-300.

Smillie, I. (2010). Blood on the Stone: Greed, Corruption and War in the Global      Diamond                     Trade. Anthem Press.

Vlachos, A., & Muir, E. (2010). How I treat Diamond-Blackfan         anemia. Blood,116(19),                      3715-3723.

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The Factors Effecting The Fear Of Entrepreneurship

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………3

2.0 Literature review…………………………………………………………………….5

3.0 Methodology………………………………………………………………………..9

4.0Results of analysis…………………………………………………………………..10

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations…………………………………………………17

6.0 References………………………………………………………………………….21

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                        Introduction
            The effects of culture have always fascinated the business and entrepreneurial society. Cultural aspects of society have so much sway over the entrepreneurial success that models have come up as a way of understanding the effects of the seemingly benign aspect of human existence on such an important factor in economic development (Verbeke, Lehmann & Van Tulder, 2011). While the majority of research into these conditions reveals that differences in culture do not affect the entrepreneurial process and growth, their effects on the fear of the same from a different school of thought. The main perspectives from which we shall investigate the fear of entrepreneurship are culture and business environment.
            The fear of entrepreneurship depends mostly on success rather than performance. How fear affects, the prospective investor from an exciting body of research since the business community seems to understand little about the condition’s impact relative to the complexity of entrepreneurship. However, the recent efforts to understand more of such influences as a way of optimizing the process of economic development seems to be successful given the rate of success (Hisrich & Peters, 2002). This paper shall investigate the effects of culture and one’s environment on their fear of entrepreneurship and the process of enterprising for profit. The effects of these factors will be analyzed from both a hypothetical perspective and a topic-based one in order to come up with comprehensive conclusions on the matter.
            The fear of entrepreneurship is an innate concern that a venture’s stakeholder or shareholder bears regarding the ability of their investment. The fear mostly revolves around the venture’s capability for success and its ability to emerge as a success based on the initial plan and the performance process. The entrepreneur is concerned about the enterprise collapsing after he/he starts operations due to unforeseen circumstances or poor planning. An entrepreneurship is also concerned that other factors such inadequate facilitation and external influences could lead to the collapse of their venture, and, therefore, spends a considerable time agonizing over the possible influences that could affect the investment negatively.
            However, most of these individuals do not adequately consider the role and consequences of their culture to the venture. Due to the subjective nature of human beings, they fail to adequately factor in the effects of culture on business ventures choosing instead to concentrate on the external and apparent internal factors. However, a shrewd businessperson considers how something as personal as the culture will affect their performance due to the potential some cultural practices have on the busines (Carsrud & Brännback, 2007) s. Some communities observe some cultural practices that could have an adverse effect on the market thus generating fear during the process of starting and running the business.
            Another factor that has a direct impact on the fear of entrepreneurship is the investor’s environment. The business environment is one of the most influential factors that investors consider when planning on opening up shop. However, the mainstay of this paper is the entrepreneur’s fear hence the effects of the business environment on the same. However much research goes into the factors that influence the business environment and the chances of organizational success or failure, the bottom line is that not as much has gone into a better understanding of the effects of the same on the investor’s fear. The paper shall again seek to investigate this issue using an extensive literature review. After setting up the context for a comprehensive literature review, the paper will utilize appropriate research methodology in order to draw useful and comprehensive conclusion for our topic. Therefore, this paper shall seek to find merit in and investigate the hypothesis to the effect that an individual’s culture and environment are the primary factors that affect the fear of entrepreneurship.
                                                                        Literature review
            In 1980, Hofstede forwarded some concepts regarding the cultural aspects of business organizations. The dimensional elements he came up with have continued not only to define the cultural aspects of business, but also the cultural conditions of entire countries in a business and enterprise sense (Freytag & Thurik, 2010). The dimensions include individualism-collectivism; power distance; uncertainty avoidance and masculinity –feminism has a direct effect on the choice of an individual or organization in establishing a business organization in an area.
            In the cultural terms and how they affect the fear of entrepreneurship, the power distance dimension is an important factor. The dimension refers to the degree of inequality among people with power in cultural terms (Fayolle, Kyrö & Liñán, 2015). In addition to the disparity, the dimension also has a special score that is interpreted in relations to the society’s distribution of power (Ulijn, Drillon & Lasch, 2007). When the score is high, the society suffers a great disparity in terms of the empowerment of people and the members of the society know their place in the community. Interestingly, this dimension has a direct influence on the society’s fear concerning entrepreneurship as those that find themselves in a disadvantaged position exhibit fear for entrepreneurial activity due to their low level of empowerment in the society.
            In terms of performance, the power distance scores also have some impact on the fear factor that affects entrepreneurship (Freytag & Thurik, 2010). Interestingly, the countries or regions that exhibit a high PD score indicate that there is a high degree of disparity between different members of the entrepreneurial community. Malaysia, for example, scores 104 in this dimension making it a good example of the different levels of empowerment in the business and entrepreneurial world, therefore scaring away potential investors (Kshetri, n.d.). On the other hand, countries like the US that have a comparatively low PD score exhibit a high degree of equality in the business and entrepreneurship industry making them quite attractive to the enterprising among society due to equilibrium of empowerment.
            The second dimension that Hofstede used to gauge the cultural and business environment of different regions and countries is the Individualism-Collectivism Index. The index is a measure of the degree of interaction between one member of society and the rest of the group (Hisrich & Peters, 2002). The measure of individualism and collectivism in a society has a direct bearing on a potential investors fear of entrepreneur because investment is an activity that heavily relies on the establishment and maintenance of a healthy relationship (Mitteness, 2009). In societies that exhibit a high degree of individualism as demonstrated by a high Individualism – Collectivism Index, the level of cooperation is low and investment opportunities get ignored due to the entrepreneur’s lack of confidence in the interpersonal ability of the community. On the other hand, countries such as Panama and some South American countries that score highly in this dimension could reduce fear of entrepreneurship in potential investors since the score indicates high levels of interaction and coordination in the society as part of the culture.
            The third dimension according to Hofstede was uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance implies the fear that investors or business people have for the future whose certainty and events they cannot decipher or anticipate in ways that make sense from a strategic perspective. In making financial and strategic decision, business people and entrepreneurs need a good deal of certainty concerning the core factors that might affect their investment and avoid all situation of uncertainty as a culture (Fayolle, Kyrö & Liñán, 2015). Countries or regions that score highly in this dimension exhibit societies that avoid highly ambiguous situations as far as business and entrepreneurship is involved. Such countries are usually unstable in some sense that affects the general confidence of the business community so that they feel unsure. The inability to cultivate enough confidence in a business environment due to uncertainty is one of the causes of fear of investment and entrepreneurship thus making potential investors unable to make blind commitments (Wilton & Toh, 2012). Countries that score lowly in this dimension exhibit a high degree of confidence in the futuristic aspects of their business environments thus encouraging investment and reducing any fear of entrepreneurship the potential investor might harbor.
            The fourth dimension Hofstede proposed as a means of analyzing the business environment of a country or region from a cultural perspective was the masculinity-feminine index. The index indicates the degree to which the players in the business environment align themselves to traditional masculine or feminine cultural and social roles (Valdez & Richardson, 2013). The impact such an index or dimension would have the fear of entrepreneurship depends on the gender of the entrepreneur himself or herself. If the country or region scores highly in this dimension, the high index implies a highly masculine society and probably male business and entrepreneurial culture. One of the best examples of a country that scores highly in this index is Japan with a score of 95. The main effect this index would have on the feminine demographic with intentions of entrepreneurial activity is detrimental, as they would fear the effects of gender bias. Along the same line, male entrepreneurs would not consider the gender bias in their favor as a threat to entrepreneurial ambitions and would consider investment opportunities ceteris paribus. On the other hand, a country that score low on this index, such a Sweden with 5, implies a more feminine-influenced society with more gender equality in the business and entrepreneurship society (Llussa, n.d.). Therefore, female entrepreneurs would find this kind of business environment more conducive to investment since the cultural aspects favor them through an absence of one factor that cultivates the fear of entrepreneurship for them. One good example  of this scenario is the 2012 report by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor that stipulated the existence of 126 million female entrepreneurs in more than 65 countries (GEM, 2013).
            The level of independence the society attaches to the potential entrepreneur also influences the level of fear that these potential investors possess in terms of the desire to involve themselves in the business. In organizations that allow a healthy degree of individual freedom and independence, the members can pursue their dreams in the conducive environment. Some regions allow for such freedom that provides a healthy environment for these motivated individuals to conquer their fear of entrepreneurship and start a venture that eventually succeed. The Western countries such as those in the American continent and Eastern Europe allow their citizens a healthy degree of independence that encourages them to pursue their business motivations. On the other hand, those in parts of Asian, Africa, and South America do not enjoy as much freedom as their counterparts. Therefore, they are unable to conquer their fear of entrepreneurship.
            Concerning the effects of the environment on the fear of entrepreneurship, the primary factors to consider include the political environment, the economic one, and the technocratic environment as well. The political environment is a major factor to consider when investigating the phenomena of fear of entrepreneurship. Political upheavals and instability threaten the ability of businesses to succeed (Cuervo, 2005). Therefore, potential businesspersons and investors do not want to see their entrepreneurial resources go to places where success is not guaranteed due to political and bureaucratic problems. Therefore, political instability also affects the fear factor of entrepreneurship since the ability to business resources to bring back returns is compromised.
            The culture of materialism also affects the fear of entrepreneurship since the need for more materials, and goods or services affect the need for one to conquer their fear of entrepreneurship. The people usually desire more than the usual batch of goods supplied by the resources affordable on a standard salary and take on more in the form of investment (Cuervo, 2005). The fear of entrepreneurship forces one to take a logical step in the way of adding to their income streams.
                                                                        Methodology
            With the complexities of collecting andanalyzing data to establish theeffects of fear on the entrepreneurship facing us, the importance of using a propermethod are critical forthesake of the hypothesis and its proof. The methodology we chose for that process was a use of surveys from both ends of the hypothesis. The first side consists of individuals with intentions of going into entrepreneurship while the second consists of successful entrepreneurs who have successfully set up ventures in different regions. Due to the disparity in the methodology’s sample size, the best method of collecting such data would be an online survey.
            The first groups of respondents, those with interests in gaining entry into the entrepreneurial world would answer a group of specially formulated questions in an online questionnaire. These questions would seek to a number of issues ranging from the existence of fear of entrepreneurship, its motivation, and the effects the respondents feels that fear has on their decision-making processes in terms of enterprise. The questions would have to be unbiased and user-friendly so that the process rid itself of any prejudice and obtained the highest degree of accuracy possible.
            The second group of respondents, those already in the entrepreneurship industry, would answer a set of individual questions. Their questions would be slightly different from those of the group that the other group responded in terms of the range of issues and objectives. As opposed to the other group, this group would be asked about the extent of impact that their culture and environment has affected their businesses and enterprises. In addition, they would also be asked what else affects their entrepreneurial spirit in order to pave the way for further research into the matter.
            The methodology has to consider some issues in the course of developing the research data for analysis. One of the most important issues in this stage is privacy. By ensuring the process is not revealing, thetwo groups, especially the second one consisting of successful entrepreneurs, would feel more encouraged and confident enough to participate in the personal questionnaire and survey process. One possible risk mitigation process that could be used to protect the integrity of the privacy is a lack of names in the questionnaires and surveys. In addition, the research material would be destroyed immediately the analysis was completed.
                                                                        Results of analysis
            The entrepreneurial community prides itself as the modern epitome of development. Its transition between governments is seamless. The checks and balances protected by the constitution evoke envy and admiration from its contemporaries. Its longevity and tenacity even in the face of adversity swells hearts with joy and hope. Countless nations have mimicked their constitutions upon the U.S’s enterprise environment (Convention, 2012). A major pillar of the global economic environment is its protection of entrepreneurship in its entirety.
            One conclusive definition of an enterprise the conglomeration of skills, motivation, resources, and business ideas into a successful entity. Further, the support of democracy should demonstrate; equality in voting, effective participation, high levels of understanding, control of the agenda by the citizenry, and none- biased inclusivity (Pearcy). Many modern democracies have fallen to base temptations to betray the ideals and beliefs of their respective nations. The Athenian model of direct democracy, where all present democracies draw their powers premised upon equality. The equality principle received protection and insurance through a justice system. It aspired to free all from any imaginable form of an inequality by adjusting the pedestals occupied by the ruled and the rulers. It purported to do this by enabling the citizenry to vote on every issue. The U.S fitted the Athenian model to create a representative democracy. Within a representative democracy, all eligible citizens willingly vote to pass laws for them (Pearcy). The principal goal of this paper is to examine how the two-party system of representative democracy affects decision- making and legislation.
            Unique tenets, norms, and practices are the characteristics of entrepreneurship. For starters, entrepreneurship demands a genuine, open, and fair playground for competition (Fotopoulos, 2005). The perception of rigged or predetermined processes does not augur well with the government and the general populace. Secondly, free communication with the people and the press deserves guarantee without coercion, threats, or intimidation.Thirdly, the competitors have to exhibit pertinent differences in ideology and policy. Therefore, the business environment expects a perfect outcome since there exists complete information. The three intertwine to form a basis on which every representative entrepreneurial environment establishes its efficiency.
            Representative enterprises embrace commercial politics as the driver of Politico issues (Fotopoulos, 2005). Critical in the analysis of the effects of cultural aspects and their dominance in the future whose possibilities lie in the definition of the concepts. It insinuates that the commercial environment is more susceptible to the forces of culture as suggested by Hofstede’s research results and their impact on the fear of entrepreneurship (Kinicki & Williams, 2008). The most significant invented method for fair representation of these effects was his rank system. The use of different parties and countries precedes recent times and is a longstanding and widely used practice. These considerations fit the definition of a social group that pursues to take over the economic steering activities through entrepreneurship.
            An analysis of the data obtained in the methodology and data collection exercise corresponds to the situation on the ground. Interestingly, the fears of the first group in the exercise were founded on environmental issues they faced in their respective regions. These environmental conditions included some cultural aspects of their environments therefore proposing the emergence of a situation where the cultural aspects became part of the environment.
            The Republican Party and the Democratic Party are the dominant parties in the U.S political system. They divergently differ in values, beliefs, goals, and modus operandi. The Republican Party prides itself as the party of maximum economic freedom supplemented by the prosperity that freedom brings. The party postulates that prosperity is the obvious result of self-discipline, work, savings, and investments by dedicated and hardworking Americans. However, a disclaimer arises; that prosperity is not an end in itself. Rather, it is a means to self-reliance (Pearcy). It equips the masses with independence from the government. It offers them freedom of choice in religion and parenting concerns. Moreover, cumulated individual prosperity fuels the national government in asserting its global leadership through military strength.
            The Republican Party embraces a free enterprise system (Convention, 2012). The party abhors bailout and guarantees. They argue that such economic policies only succeed in enslaving the masses. They offer an alternative where free working people utilize their innate talents, combining them with virtues. The complimentary relationship between talent, hard work, ethical practices, and relentless pursuit is a sure way to individual prosperity and abundance. Finally, Republicans fully embrace the Great American Dream, with its inclusive economics: everyone has a chance to construct, invest, and prosper.
            Democrats differ with the Republicans on their beliefs, goals, aspirations, and methods of attaining them. Despite the homogenous desire for a prosperous America, the methods applied contrast significantly. Democrats embrace a spirit of unity. They preach with panache the oneness of every American (Convention, 2012). They believe that America becomes a greater nation through teamwork. The success of this country only sees daylight when everyone gets a fair and equal shot. The above- stated requests implementation. Democrats contemplate a society where everyone plays by the same rules. The Democrats perceive such efforts as the only plausible route towards a long lasting economy.
            Due to the above-stated differences, decision-making and legislation on pertinent issues sway towards the party in power. It is, however, subject to the numbers held in the legislative houses. Stance on economic issues, policies, and their implementation may differ as illustrated below and republicans believe that the surest way to achieve job creation is through economic growth. The best way to achieve this is through free market policies. The Republicans believe in a simplified tax system. Further, they seek the global competitiveness of American industries. Such systems would enhance growth of the US economic development as demonstrated by the 2015 US cenus bureau on investment. The report stated that the amount of exports were US $ 186.2B , an increase from the previous year’s April volumes (US CENSUS BUREAU, 2015). They desire to implement aggressive marketing policies for American products in the global market. Further, they seek to implement the tangible mega infrastructure. In recent times, the Republicans have criticized the Democrat- backed Obama administration. The cause of disagreement has been allegations of neglecting the crucial water supply systems.
            Democrats also embrace the clarion call for economic growth. However, their approach differs from their Republican counterparts. They seek to end tax loopholes for corporations. Moreover, they propose abolishing taxes to small businesses (Milkis, 2012). They find a clean energy economy. In addition, they recommend thorough efforts in rebuilding the infrastructure. A case in point is President’s Obama initiation of a massive investment in green infrastructure. The execution happens through the conduit of investing in solar panels. The cost of solar panels depreciation forecasted is 60%.An increment in the solar installations result. Jobs in the solar industry increase by 20%.
            Democrats and Republicans alike concur on the urgent need for a comprehensive immigration reform policy. The present age characteristic is a ballooning international trade. Many unscrupulous entities have been piggybacking on the United States’ technological and knowledge prowess.Republicans in their pursuit, propose strategic and stringent immigration rules. They suggest awarding of visas to holders of advanced degrees from other nations. Key among them includes mathematics, engineering, technology, and science. The end game in such move is retaining highly skilled and English speaking persons. They pose a great asset towards the actualization of the Great American dream. Republicans support wooing of innovators to make the United States their places of residence. The proposition cuts across a wide array of fields.
            However, they caution that the immigration system remains porous to malicious infiltrations. Threats of intellectual theft and espionage abound. Democrats’ policy calls for responsibility towards the issue. The government of the day should bear the full cost of protecting the country’s borders. Employers should also bear their equal burden. They should fairly transact with their laborers. Exploitation of workers in any way degrades the American workforce. Illegal residents of the U.S should take the requisite steps to solve their conundrum. They must assume full responsibilities, pay taxes, face the law, and learn English.
Energy independence remains the single most important goal for any self- respecting country. Every country desires the ability to provide adequate energy for home consumption, industrial requirement and any other need that may arise(Poole, 2014) A vibrant energy sector majorly catalyzes economic growth. It is a job generator in energy intensive industries and their secondary markets.

            The Republican Party remains alive to pertinent issues concerning energy provision. Examples set forth by our past entrepreneurial gurus e.g. Ford and The Wright Brothers demand the intensive use of energy in mass production. The party admits of vast resources endowed to this nation. To maximize output, they propose a free market system in the market. Subject to the law of demand and cushioned by individual preferences the best firms will prosper. Republicans advocate the full employment of the available energy resources (Convention, 2012). A revitalized energy has the potential to catapult the economy to unprecedented heights. The Republican Party encourages diversified energy sources to an extent that is economically viable.
The Democrats piously acknowledge the importance of energy security. However, they are adamant that energy prospects remain implausible in hurried exploration venture. To that regard, Democrats advise the pursuit of developing all America’s natural resources. Oil, gas, wind- based energy, solar and bio-fuels promise of an energy sufficient America. Presently, domestic oil production is at an unparalleled high. Petroleum imports daily decrease by a substantial figure. Investment in solar, geothermal and wind energy also has peaked. Obama’s administration struck a deal with automakers to increase fuel efficiency. Reduced fuel consumption has been the positive result.
            Education in its entirety supersedes going to school. Itentailstheentirebuffet of activities, through which familiesandcommunitiesimpactyoungergenerations. Education far exceeds the boundaries of knowledge and skills. It leaks to ethical, behavioral norms and traditions (Convention, 2012). Education remains a tightly contested social sphere. Many forces seek to remake America by remaking its education.
            The Republicans hold the school issue at heart. They rightly castigate the recurrent over expenditure towards education. They propose embracing excellent education systems. Such bear the characteristic of high levels of accountability. Republicans reject the rumors and innuendos of academic mediocrity (Convention, 2012). They purport to protect the state and local control of schools. Possible solutions to the education question, as put forth by the Republicans, include various aspects. Greater emphasis on financial and virtue literacy, high levels of academic standards, reinvigorated focus on the study of the Constitution, continuous assessments of the fundamentals, transparency and a fervent introduction to American history (Fotopoulos).  Republican governors, to the best of their abilities, have pushed the above- stated agenda.
Democrats endure the daily prayer of every parent, success, and happiness for their children lives (www.democrats.org). The happenstance of this demands concrete and sound education. In 2010, President Obama signed into law student loan reform enabling access to college education for millions of Americans. Further, the party advocates for innovativeness and creativity in the provision of education. The leeway has allowed several states to implement revolutionary training programs.
            The comparative assertions stated above arise due to a fundamental difference in ideology. Consequently, the variations have affected legislation and decision-making. Particularly so, since, no third party offers a voice of reason to rival the Democratic and Republican Parties.
            In present times, the situation demands attention. Efforts aimed at reducing pollution have been a success. The Republicans pertinently believe in a better environment. Conservation is an indigenous ideal of the Republican Party (Convention, 2012). Republicans hope to implement the scientific knowledge into energy conservation. Further, they advance the argument that environmental cleanliness through privatization of such ventures.
            The Democrats similarly acknowledge the pivotal role of a clean environment to a vibrant economy. They take a suave move against environmental degradation by protecting species on the brink of extension. In addition, the Obama administration has ventured in restoring ecosystems. By addressing such anomalies, the problem of environmental destruction collapses to its knees (Poole 2014).
                                                            Conclusion and Recommendations
            Why are cultural and environmental factors relevant to the course of analyzing the fear of entrepreneurship? In the absence of all other factors, the process of enterprise development is unstable. An economic system aggregates interests in the supply and demand of resources necessary for the population. Apart from that, it approximates the masses to the government. The powers wielded by other economic parties may turn them into enemies of development. However, if used constructively, decision-making and legislation are positively impacted. The two- party dominance positively influences legislation.
            During elections, voters sway along the two- party dominance. Party candidate takes advantage of their party’s brand name for purposes of minimizing costs. Due to the overwhelming dominance of the two –parties, freedom of choice becomes redundant (Cakmak). Independent candidates are stifled and denied any chance. The electorate is risked averse to wasting of votes. The feeble efforts to integrate a third party have yielded minute success. Subsequently, voters are compelled to vote for parties, rather than individuals.
            The two- party dominance has established a rhythm and consistency in the U.S political terrain. For years, America has voted along a two party system. The system allows for the perfection of party ideas and values (Tsebelis). Despite their imperfection, political parties remain the most crucial tool for delegation. The two – party dominances implies that democracy is futile devoid of parties. The government of the day requires constant checks and balances. The most important role of any political party is to govern when in power and to check the government when in opposition (Mainwaring). The two- party dominance quietly addresses this. A case in point can be the fierce rebuttal to Obamacare. Republicans gallantly offered their alternative voices to the matter.
            Political parties are the de facto carriers of a nation’s moral and social soul. They set the agenda on the adoption or elimination of societal tenets, values, and norms. Questions such as same-sex marriage and abortion receive a sufficient address from the two parties (Cakmak). They help surmount collective handicaps through joint efforts and agenda.
Over the years, political parties have evolved to become protectors of cronyism. The candidate selection process is porous. It depends upon name recognition and emotional symbolism. Thus, a gap arises for the power elite to push forth their puppets, sycophants, and wheeler-dealers (Mainwaring). Support by the power elite who control large estates catapults any contender to a nearly assured win. The result outcome becomes cahoots of issueless elected officials. It is beyond reasonable doubt that, he who pays the piper calls the tune. To that extent, the countries policies fall upon the laps of the power elite. They tweak the government agenda with zero regard for the sound of the typical citizen (Domhoff). They ignore basic economic tenets and laws. The guide and rectitude of their actions are mainly partisan selfish interest.
            The two – party dominance political system affects decision-making and legislation. However, the system still faces several challenges. Naysayers might quickly point to the difficulties as a sign of decline (Hira). The above- stated claims, ‘democracy is inseparable from political parties’ ring true. Political parties in the United States have been mutating and metamorphosing since time immemorial. Therefore, the apparent tumults and upheavals within the parties’ reigns are a passing cloud, one that brings with it a positive aspect. It becomes then a foregone conclusion: political parties were a necessity of the past, a necessity of the present, and a necessity of the future. However, their relevance and applicability remains a function of time.
The importance of entrepreneurship in the socio-economic development of a nation is one motivation for the numerous studies carried out in the course of the last five decades. However, the effects of fear on entrepreneurship have not been as extensively looked into due to concentration of other determinants of entrepreneurship such as financial factors. However, this research paper offered insight into one of the methods that recent scholars and enthusiast are employing to try and comprehend the effects of fear on entrepreneurship. Interestingly, the results seem to point to some relevant findings that could shed light on the process of optimizing entrepreneurial development.
            Unfortunately, the research may have hit its end without suggesting a solution to the fear of entrepreneurship. However, from the current standpoint, we can confidently declare that culture and environment are similar influences to the process of entrepreneurial development (Gates & Leuschner, 2007). However, the cultural and environmental aspects that affect this process are hard to control from the investor’s standpoint. Perhaps the only entity that can do anything significant is the legislative and political governance machinery of the country. By ensuring that the economic conditions are at their best, the governments could optimize the process of overcoming the fear of entrepreneurship on the investors’ side. These individuals do not want to invest in uncertain conditions; neither do they want to spend in biased socio-economic situations that favor one entity while undermining the other. Therefore, as more research is directed to the issue, the ball falls into the legislative object’s court to assist the entrepreneurs overcome their fears.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                        References

Carsrud, A., & Brännback, M. (2007). Entrepreneurship. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.

Cuervo, A. (2005). Individual and Environmental Determinants of Entrepreneurship. The International Entrepreneurship And Management Journal, 1(3), 293-311. doi:10.1007/s11365-005-2591-7

Dempsey, D. T GEM. (2013, July 31). 126 Million Women Entrepreneurs Active Worldwide: GEM 2012 Women’s Report : News :: GEM Global Entrepreneurship Monitor ::. Retrieved May 3, 2015, from http://www.gemconsortium.org/news/782/126-million-women-entrepreneurs-active-worldwide:-gem-2012-womens-reporthe push and pull of entrepreneurial careers.

Fayolle, A., Kyrö, P., & Liñán, F. (2015). Developing, shaping and growing entrepreneurship. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd.

Freytag, A., & Thurik, A. (2010). Entrepreneurship and culture. Berlin: Springer.

Gates, S., & Leuschner, K. (2007). In the name of entrepreneurship?. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Hisrich, R., & Peters, M. (2002). Entrepreneurship. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Kinicki, A., & Williams, B. (2008). Management. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Kshetri, N. Global entrepreneurship.

Llussa, F. Determinants of Entrepreneurship: Are Women Different?. SSRN Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1799334

Mitteness, C. (2009). The impact of social influence on angel investing.

Ulijn, J., Drillon, D., & Lasch, F. (2007). Entrepreneurship, cooperation and the firm. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

US CENSUS BUREAU. (2015). US International Trade in Goods and Services. Retrieved from US census bureau website: http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/current_press_release/ft900.pdf

Valdez, M., & Richardson, J. (2013). Institutional Determinants of Macro-Level Entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory And Practice, 37(5), 1149-1175. doi:10.1111/etap.12000

Verbeke, A., Lehmann, A., & Van Tulder, R. (2011). Entrepreneurship in the Global Firm. Bradford: Emerald Group Pub.

Wilton, N., & Toh, W. (2012). Determinants of entrepreneurship: a framework for successful entrepreneurship. World Review Of Entrepreneurship, Management And Sustainable Development, 8(3), 285. doi:10.1504/wremsd.2012.049391

 

 

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Declaration of Independence and the textbook ‘Out of Many

Declaration of Independence and the textbook ‘Out of Many’

 

The Declaration of Independence had many roles when Jefferson drafted it, the main on being that of explaining why the colonies had chosen to separate themselves from Great Britain. The Revolutionary wars had begun and major battles had already taken place. After these, many of the American colonies established their own currency, armies, congress, and post office. On June 7th, 1776, at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, a resolution was put forward that United States should be completely free of England’s influence and all ties between the two severed. Congress agreed to Richard Henry Lee’s resolution and plans began to ratify an official Declaration of Independence.

            Thomas Jefferson, the man chosen to draft this Declaration, did his job in one day assisted by a committee. In this committee were Roger Sherman, Robert Livingstone, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams. In his work, Jefferson declared that a group of people had the right to change their government if they felt it was overbearing and unfair in its operations. In addition, he stated how governments failed the moment they lost favor in the eyes of the governed. After this, The Declaration of Independence was presented to the Continental Congress and approved.

            The fifth grievance in The Declaration of Independence stipulates how the British government repeatedly dissolved Representative Houses after they challenged its invasion of human rights. After the Townsend Revenues Act of 1767 was passed, the British governments reserved the right to impose tax on various goods involved in the fast growing trade activities. Among these were glass, paper, lead and tea – important goods in those days. The main purpose of this act was to raise revenue to be used in paying governors and judges. The idea was not favorable to the local inhabitants of the American colony and rebellion began. The State of New York was punished for this reason and had its representative house dissolved. In addition, for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, this state suffered more punitive actions which led to the drafting of the Massachusetts Circular. The fifth grievance on The Declaration of Independence is based on these occurrences.

            The seventeenth grievance on The Declaration of Independence is a cry over Britain’s imposition of taxes on the colonies without their consent. After the numerous wars Britain had taken part in left her broke, she tried to raise revenue by taxing her own people. This action was met with very harsh sentiment and some suggested that Great Britain tax its colonies. The Stamp Act of 1765 provides the best example of taxation processes that affected colonies yet they had not been involved in their formation nor accepted them. The Stamp Act stipulated that all colonial printed material was to appear on specially printed paper from England bearing the embossed revenue stamp. The main purpose of this was to generate revenue to increase supplies to troops in various battles Britain was involved. Unfortunately, colonies were not involved in the making of this decision hence the seventeenth grievance.

                                                               Conclusion

            The Declaration of Independence provided a platform from which the colonies were able to articulate their quest and struggle for independence. Britain had imposed unfair laws on its colonies and their inhabitants forcing them to retaliate and seek independence. Perhaps the fact that it was drafted in a single day points at the urgency with which United States needed its independence. 

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The Role of Three Anarchists in Latin American Anarchist Movement in the U.S

The Role of Three Anarchists in Latin American Anarchist Movement in the U.S

The Mexico – US border area, and especially the urban centers of San Antonio, Laredo, Los Angeles and El Paso served as center stage for essential parts of the precursory work for the 1910 Mexican revolution. On the either sides of the boundary separating the two nations, issues of anticlericalism, liberalism, anarchism, class, nationalism, identity and race were solved with revolutionary fervor and executed through periodical publications, memoirs and autobiographical narratives by female authors who had become extremely involved in calling attention to issues of gender, in addition to the nationalist strife in Mexico for democracy. Within the issues articulated by the differing factions of the revolutionary movement in Mexico, a small but essential number of periodicals published in the Spanish language in the United States. These periodicals talked about and stressed on the growing concern for the emancipation of women and the patriarchal authority that the government had subverted by including women in the fight and struggle for justice. The women could accomplish this at times through the manipulation of genders for their own certain nationalist advantages (Lomas 50- 74). 

Through unsigned editorials and articles, certain periodicals like the El Obrero meaning the worker, and the La Voz de la Mujer meaning the women’s voice proclaimed themselves as tools of politics of the predecessor revolutionary movement. Just the same, another periodical named the Pluma Roja, meaning the red pen, proclaimed and acted the same for the internationality anarchist movement. The writing of certain women like Jovita Idar who continually wrote and published articles in the periodical La Cronica, which her family owned, further increased the problems brought about by the articulation of gender by their removal of the borders in geopolitics, by focusing on cultural and political practices across the border and knowingly establishing a discourse that was transborder (Lomas 50- 74). 

Despite the political imposition of the twentieth century of a physical national boundary, separating the United States from Mexico, each seeking to establish its national culture differently, the position of the Mexican women in the society in the borderlands was still determined by the ancient 19th century social norms of the Mexican culture. As the revolutionary movement continued to develop, it provided a field that was extremely fertile for the re- emergence of nationalist attitudes among the Mexican US population, and established the space to redevelop the responsibility and roles of women in the society (Lomas 50- 74). 

The liberalism of this revolutionary movement strengthened the secular perspective that openly disagreed the narrative that had become master in that era; the Catholic Church narrative. Although only a few of the women in the borderline areas had the required cultural capital to express themselves and come up with these expressions in writing, the women who id had the capacity to come up with other ways of doing so. Up to today, no one has virtually recognized or acknowledged the work of these women as political and social activists and their written and intellectual contributions. This either is largely due to gender discrimination or due to political affiliation, as no one in Mexico has recognized his or her work and efforts. In the United States, these factors, in addition to linguistic and racial biases, have sentenced their work to oblivion. However, the stories of these women and their efforts to get the stories published represent the realities of individuals, the importance of whose daily lives transcends the challenges resulting from political, national, class and gender boundaries (Lomas 50- 74). This paper shows the importance, and the influence the lives of these women, and their work had on US, and the influences of the Anarchist movements of the Latin America on the United States. 

Latino and Hispanic women in the United States have been involved and engaged in journalism for numerous years, utilizing their skills in multilingualism to reach and communicate across cultures and spread news and ideas throughout the nineteenth century up to the Common Era. The press in Hispanic countries provided information and knowledge essential to the Latin American and Hispanic communities and helped to preserve and foster the values of culture that we can still witness today. Just the same, these Hispanic presses provided columns of special interest commonly associated with magazines, bookstores, and publishing houses and promoted education to spread the ideologies of the external and internal writers. In the late 19th century, the women Hispanic writers became extremely influential in the press. One of the commonly known women writers from a Mexican background during those times was Casanova de Villaverde who was a Cuban activist and abolitionist and a political activist (Lazo 78- 123). 

This woman wrote for the America Latina and could come up with articles about revolutionary and movements for freeing Cuba, though she was from a conservative family. A writer later married her and they moved to New York from where she and her husband continued to take part in the fight for Cuban freedom. In the early 20th century, several other women and especially those from the borderline between Mexico and Texas became instrumental in spreading the news about how concerned they were for the civil rights and freedoms of the Mexican citizens and the dislike they had for the then president in the Hispanic periodicals and newspapers. Idar was among these women when she begun to write for her father. It was her family that later organized and led the first Mexican Congress in Texas to safeguard the rights of Mexican- Americans (Lazo 78- 123).

 It was also during this time that Idar and her family helped found the women organization called La Liga Femenil Mexican that focused mainly on reforms in the education sector. At almost the same time Leonar Villegas de Magnon, another educator and activist begun to write the local dailies and joined another women movement called Junta Revolutionaria. These two women participated in a small organization called La Cruz Blanca that specialized in helping soldiers who became wounded. It was from these experiences that Villegas gained news and ideas to write about the experiences people and nurses in Juarez had in the magazine The Rebel. Other women later joined different organizations and begun writing for different newspapers relaying their fears, concerns and ideas (Arrizón 90- 112). 

The revolution discourse did not know any boundaries. Words, language, concepts and corridors crossed forth and back along the US- Mexican border as easily as the famous revolutionary Francisco Villa. The Partido Liberal Mexicano was an organization of anarchists that carried slogans with them from Mexico to the US across the US- Mexico border. As it follows, numerous female writers wrote for the newspaper of Pertido, which people called Regeneration, on both of the sides of the border, but mostly in the US in Los Angeles where the group finally settled in 1910. Women such as the Villarreal sisters, Sara Estela Ramirez, Blanca Moncaleano, Maria Talavera and Teresa Arteaga all contributed and participated in the agenda of the revolutionary as activists, revolutionists and journalists. The revolution then developed some kind of resurgence during which the women writers wrote essays, edited their own newspapers, magazines and journals. Most of these women who were after political exile in the southwestern part of the US wrote prolifically, championing the revolutionary as a women’s revolutionary and criticizing the then president Porfirio Diaz, who was also a dictator (Arrizón 90- 112).

In this essay, we are going to look at three particular women and the effects that their work and efforts in politics and society had on the US and the rest of the society. The here women to be looked at in this case are Blanca de Moncaleano, the Villarreal sisters, Andrea and Teresa and Luisa Capetillo. These women were extremely essential in influencing the other women through writing. The three women wrote for and contributed a number of essays to the famous feminist newspaper called Regeneration that reaffirmed the intent of the organization and its writers to politicize women. The essays that these women and their colleagues had are crucial because they show how a few women the Party and its ideologies influenced- and transformed- the ideologies of the women while writing their own stories. In their essays, the women undertook different approaches from the one the men writers used, and disputed implicitly, the ideology of the Party on women. Through their activist agendas of feminism, the female writers represented a doubling- an explicit agreement that was struck between the male leaders- when as feminists they begun an internationalist revolutionary movement, but by fighting for their own agenda, the women spoke and spoke feminism that was third space (Perez 54- 63a). 

Blanca Moncaleano is the first writer we are going to look at in this paper. Whereas Teresa and Andrea Villarreal and Sara Estela Ramirez in the 1900s defied the catholic ideology that the Catholic Church had well established, and one of the newspapers they worked for called the La voz de Mujer called for democracy that was liberal through movements and revolution. In the years that followed another newspaper, the Pluma Roja proposed that the only solution to unequal rights, discrimination and oppression was anarchism. These women movement founded the Pluma Roja in Los Angeles during the second stage of the revolution. Blanca de Moncaleano was the editor and the director of the newspaper from the periods between 1915 and 1913. Although there are no signs that this newspaper was based on political ideologies or as a result of a female political movement, it was developed to create networks with the international anarchist movements across the borders (Perez 54- 63a).

 There is not much known about this writer, but John hart says of her, ‘in early June 1912, Juan Francisco Moncaleano, a Colombian military (and his dynamic wife), arrived in Mexico after a brief stay in Havana (inspired by the news of the Madero led revolution)’ (Gutierrez 305).  Scholars have argued that Blanca’s father was a professor in a Colombian university who also became the founder of the newspaper called Luz. The Moncaleano family based the paper in the Mexico City. According to Hart, this ‘… was a remarkable paper. Moncaleano used it to publicize the hopeless cause of Flores Magon and the Partido Liberal Mexicano, the anarchist program of which he enthusiastically endorsed and whose leader he deeply admired, (Gutierrez 305).

Unlike the nationalist ideologies represented by other news papers such as the La voz de la Mujer, the Pluma Roja had not interest and did not acknowledge or believe in national borders. For the newspaper, the need to reinstate the position of the female population in the society was at the middle of its fight for political, social and economic freedom, and was part of the ideal notions of anarchism. For the newspaper and his writers, the patriarchal authority that remained unquestioned, upheld by the state and religion, was the target of its criticism (Perez 54- 63a). The feminist stance this woman took was of great influence to other women and the US Latin movement. She supported both the revolution and the fight for women rights. Her righting often was about encouraging women to take a forefront in matters affecting their country and other women. Her stance with these two main events made her extremely essential in the war against dictatorship.

This remarkable woman meant for most of the essays that appeared in the newspaper for the women who the writers encouraged to break from the norm by acquiring more knowledge. The program of the anarchists, as defined by the newspaper, searched for a society that was egalitarian in which the female writers had fully powered the women. It proposed the freedom of women from three main oppressors who the women activists identified as religion, the state and capital. Blanca de Moncaleano was the director of the paper and she not only talked to the women but also to the men, as she encouraged them to convert their wives who were enslaved and obedient to partners who could think for themselves. For instance, the title Men, Educate Women looks like a call for the male population to educate their women, in truth Blanca wrote the article to address the issue of the significance of letting women educate themselves. The phrase, ‘men, allow women to educate themselves and to think on her own…’  (Lomas 62) can further confirm this claim.

The articles that were signed, and probably written by Blanca de Moncaleano, are probably the most passionately critical of the men who participated in the fight for liberation and who were at least conscious of their own enslavement and suppression of women. Of these men Blanca wrote, ‘consumed by their supposed superiority, conceited in their ignorance, men believe they can achieve the goal of human emancipation without the help of women’ (Iomas 62).she denounced the source of the power of men by confronting apathy from the male writers. She further expounded her militant, firm stance through the motto of the newspaper which went like,’ before me, the star of my ideal. Behind me, men. I do not look back…’ (Lomas 62). 

All the papers that Blanca was involved with including the Pluma Roja, La Voz de la Mujer and El Obrero had an effect on their readers and audiences as they talked in detail about issues pertaining gender. It is highly possible that the audiences of this phenomenal female writer included PLM partisans and activists. According to certain scholars, the audience of the writer and her work included the general sympathizers from the Chicano- Mexican community and the intermittently active laborers, artisans and lower middle class individuals. Other audiences included the local leadership cores in most of the Chicano, chapter offices, district organizers, and local journalists who acted as the interpreters and transmitters of the policies of the movement. The well- educated, bi- national leadership, and the self- taught were also essential audiences of the writer (Norma 32- 46).

Generally, Blanca de Moncaleano was a Mexican journalist who firmly supported the rights of women and their revolution. Her articles showed a formidable stance that none of the other writes, especially the male writers, had ever shown. In most of her articles, she talked about freedoms and rights of women. In one of her many articles, Blanca criticized the subjugation women experienced at home by arguing that, women have rights equal to those given to men. She argued that God did not place women on earth for procreation, or to wash dishes and wash clothes. By naming and acknowledging the confinement of women in the family, the writer participated with a feminism that bespoke of the social conditions that dictators and male oppressors accepted as the norm for women. She, therefore, largely called for the liberation of women by urging them to break away from their prescribed duties and roles entirely (Perez 54- 63a).

The next critical writer in this paper is Luisa Capetillo. This Puerto Rican activist took a long stance in protesting and fighting against human right violations and abuses that the government and other entities executed against women and the proletarian class. Her fight for freedom and rights obtained emancipation for both the women and men workers and resulted to a system that would deliver emancipation to women from their oppression by men (Meruelo 4- 113). Her fight was no different than that of Blanca, and their efforts were extremely useful in influencing the direction of the revolution by writing articles that were insightful. Both of these women, and the Villarreal sisters, as we will see later, used their articles to mobilize individuals and to incite them against their tyrant leaders. They encouraged women and men to fight for their freedom and that of the women. Their fight saw the revolution through. Without their efforts, as we have seen, the battle would not have been won.

Her concerns were also directed towards the future of children in relation to the emancipation of women from men.  The patriarchal cultural and tradition mores of the society in the Puerto Rican culture in the early 1900s stated that women should stay home and take care of their families. In addition to this, it was the norm that women remain submissive to the men, and especially their husbands, while their male counterparts acted as the financial supporters, household heads and remained sexually free. The society expected more of these cultural expectations of the women who were elite than normal women, since they were more involved with the powers than the traditions regulated. Women who were elite also had more time at their hands with the domestic helps, and did not have to cook wash, or take care of their children. On the other hand, the proletarian women usually stayed and worked in the elite homes, and, as a result, had little time in their hands, and this made them vulnerable to the wishes of men and sexual expectations (Meruelo 4- 113). 

Capetillo viewed all this in a different way. She had a view that was progressive of the women and the abilities they possessed, intellectually, also as workers. Capetillo, through her writing, questioned traditional norms developed by the Catholic Church concerning women in the institution of marriage, even to the point of denying the significance of marriage. She encouraged for the sexual rights of women and for open relationships, and defied cultural norms and requirements, specifically if they denied women any of their rights and freedoms. For example, this writer often wore male pants, choosing what she called comfort over what she thought was a social norm that was oppressive and uncomfortable that the society forced women to follow (Meruelo 4- 113). It is clear from her articles that her father or her family never led her to feel inferior because she was a woman. She writes of her father and mother, ‘ Mi opinion acerca de las libertades, derechos y deberes de la mujer…’ (Capetillo 2). This shows were her motivation and support came from.

For one to understand fully how this writer came to establish such beliefs and ideas, it is essential to understand her background. Capetillo received an education that only the elite in the society received, but she also grew up as a proletarian. This situation placed her in a conflicting situation as to what society or class she belongs. Furthermore, she declined to identify with the elite society because her parents had strong ideas from the European revolutionary, though they received a progressive education. In her lifetime, she wrote for a number of anarchist newspapers in New York and Puerto Rico. The writer also wrote and published five books. Her work, plays and short essays reveal and show the obsession she had with improving the men in Puerto Rico and the dire economic situation of the Puerto Rican women. Her anarchist ideals that drove her actions and her fierce fight to educate the people of Puerto Rico about their rights and friends also get revealed in her work. Her first two books are about how the working class population should come together and demand for the government to provide for them better living conditions and to recognize and acknowledge their enslavement by the upper class and their blind following of the doctrines and ideologies of the Roman Catholic Church (Meruelo 4- 113).  

The last of her two books focus and emphasize more on the sexual rights of the women and the roles they can play as leaders in their organizations. In all of her books, the writer used her writing to teach and guide women to become independent and positive, something that the writer seemed to be intensely engaged in her later time in her labor career. The significance of the writer to scholars and historians is that through her specific style she was able to attain certain goals in the fight for the emancipation of women and rights and freedoms for both women and men. She was so crucial because she served as a role model for the rights of women as she broke the chains of tradition, though not usually successfully (Meruelo 4- 113). 

She was not the same as the other women activists especially in the way she cultivated her ideas. More importantly, what made this female writer so fascinating was the fact that she challenged traditions and social norms by mixing with men in politics, at a period when women did not dare appear in public without the company of a man. For example, when she described her experiences in one of her books, the ideal crusade where she usually met with other members of the labor union to discuss issues pertaining the labor movement. In addition to this, the female writer when she decided to go against the customs and the traditions of the society in a patriarchal society, her wearing of male pants when it was frowned upon in the society for women to dress as so and her progressive works of literature and activism (Meruelo 4- 113). 

Capetillo embodies and represents both drives and forces in figurative and literal sense: her rejection of marriage, her wearing of inappropriate clothes, and support of free love certainly show the fierce drive the woman had. Her arguments for a society that was classless, exaltation or praise of the masses in the working class, the penalty position that did not support death and her pleas on both men and women on how to run their homes and educate their children would also rest in the ethical drive or force earlier mentioned (West- Duran 142- 154). 

The last anarchistic women who had great influences in the US were the Villarreal sisters Teresa and Andrea. Andrea and Teresa Villarreal responded the same the messages of Guerrero and Flores Magon to women when they called for men to the revolt. In the headlines of the newspaper they wrote for, the Regeneration, the two sisters asked, ‘men what are you doing here…. Go, go to Mexico to conquer for us and for our children: LAND AND LIBERTY’ (Perez 7a). In addition, of themselves, the Villarreal sisters said that as women they had the right to demand for strength from the individuals who did not want to fight. To besiege men, the two sisters emphasized the strengths of women over their weaknesses, maybe as a way to intimidate and coerce the revolutionaries who were reluctant. The two women were based in Texas, San Antonio and the two women journalists published the El Obrero and the La Mujer Moderna, respectively edited and published by Teresa and Andrea (Perez 54- 63a). 

The two women embraced the fundamental tent (international solidarity among women) of the party in the combat newspapers. The two sisters were originally from Coahuila but they had to move to Texas so as to avoid persecution by the oppressor Porfirio Diaz. Their disobedience and hatred for the dictator led to the mistaken kidnapping of Teresa and later arrest in Mexico. The Mexican officials released her immediately and announced that her arrest was mistaken because they had intended to capture Andrea, who was the more outspoken of the two. The rebellious speeches that Andrea gave fueled her reputation. She, however, sought to correct her reputation and notoriety by arguing that it was not fair for the authorities to call her the Mexican Joan of Arc. This was because it was not possible for her to go to Mexico on a horse at her soldier’s head and because she was not able to fire a gun, as her hands were too small to do so (Perez 54- 63a).

Teresa Villarreal just like her sister was a labor organizer, feminist, and revolutionary who gave her support and that of her sister to the PLM, or he Partido Liberal Mexicano and the Mexican revolution. The two sisters published and edited two newspapers the La Mujer Moderna and the El Obrero. In these newspapers, the two women published articles that talked about and addressed the proletariat and encouraged for the participation of all women and all men in the Mexican revolution fight for a government that was democratic and that which respected the rights and freedoms of its citizens. In addition to the educational, economic and cultural improvements for the populations, the emancipation and the freeing of women from the power and oppression of men, traditions and state was also included in her fight for justice and democracy. Most of their family supported their activities, as their brother and father were also strong supporters of the Partido Liberal Mexicano, which was against the ideologies and the dictatorship and power of the then dictator president Porfirio Diaz (Palomo Acosta and Winegarten 54-90).

 As a result, of the repression of their activity by the regime of the oppressive president, they had to move to Texas. After this time, they moved to Missouri, St Louis exploiting the advantage the expo had imposed on the state and attracted numerous radicals from all over from many causes. In this area, they developed associations that were friendly with the organizations in the US with whom they shared similar interests. Some examples of such organizations included the Socialist Party, the Industrial Workers of the World, and the American Federation of Labor. By 1909, the two sisters had established an environment that was fertile enough for their ideas in San Antonio, to spread their ideologies and campaign against those of the dictator president Diaz through the Mexican press in exile (Palomo Acosta and Winegarten 54-90).

 The Mexican press in exile served the people and the communities from the Mexican community in the south side of the United States. Since the leadership, which was mainly made of males, was constantly under watch, the two sisters and other female writers like them played major roles in the revolutionary movement. They performed tasks that helped further the revolutionary cause like carrying messages, intelligence reports and supplies. One scholar recalled how these women took on responsibilities that scared men because of the increased threats in the movement. He observed that Texas women were particularly active in the revolutionary and had to continue to carry out their duties and work in cases where men felt that they could not continue working (Perez 78- 98b).

These three women are just some examples of some remarkable women who performed great tasks in the revolutionary movement, and in turn influenced other women and the rest of the society greatly through their writings, essays, narratives and poems. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Works cited

Arrizón, A. ‘Soldaderas’ and the Staging of the Mexican Revolution’. TDR (The MIT       Press) 48.1(1998): 90–112. Print.

Capetillo, Luisa. A Nation of Women: An Early Feminist Speaks Out. Houston: Arte Público        Press, 2004. Print.

Gutierrez, Ramon A. Recovering the US Hispanic Literary Heritage, volume 1. Mexico: Arte      Publico Press, 1993. 

Lazo, R. Writing to Cuba: filibustering and Cuban exiles in the United States. North Carolina:     The University of North Carolina Press, 2005. Print. 

Lomas, Clara. Transborder Discourse. Print.

Meruelo, Maria Sabat. Radical Proletarian Social Reformer, 2007. Print. 

Norma, Valle Ferrer. The Story of Luisa Capetillo: A Pioneer Puerto Rican Feminist. Volume 4  New York: Lang, 2004. Print.

Palomo Acosta, Teresa and Winegarten, Ruthe. Las Tejanas: 300 years of history. Volume 10 of                         Jack and Doris Smothers series in Texas history, life, and culture. University of Texas      Press, 2003. Print.

Perez, Emma. The Decolonial Imaginary: Writing Chicanas into History. Indiana University       Press, 1999b. Print. 

Perez, Emma. Chapter 3. The Poetics of an (Inter) Nationalist Revolution. Print 

West- Duran, Alan. Luisa Capetillo in Translation: Notas Pare un Testimonio. Print

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Abigail Adams And Mercy Otis Warren

Abigail Adams And Mercy Otis Warren 

Introduction

Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren are two women who can be identified as the founding mothers of the United States. Abigail Adams was married to the former president of United States John Adams. She was actively involved in the political life of her husband.  She pushed her husband to recognize the legal rights of women. Mercy Otis on the other hand, vehemently opposed the British colonization in Massachusetts. Her work as an artist is often considered to be her way for presenting her political opinions. As a political writer she gave her voice when many other women maintained their silence. The two women were both born at Massachusetts, and both actively engaged in politics as feminist pushing not just their husband agendas, but the voice of women. These papers excavate into the lives of these two great women in American history. 

Abigail Adams

She was born on November 11, 1744. Her parents were William Smith and Elizabeth Quincy. She was born at Weymouth, Massachusetts[1]. She did not have formal education, but instead learnt at home. She learned writing, reading, and mathematics. She also studied dance, music, and Irish. She had access to her father and grandfather’s libraries. Her father was someone who loved to learn and read and often encouraged his children to look at his extensive library[2]. Her special interest was on theology, philosophy, Shakespeare, ancient theory, the classics, and government law[3].

She met her husband and a lawyer John Adams when she was only 15, they later married on October 25 1764 and moved to Boston with him[4]. They bought a huge track of land in 1787, known as Peacefield, and John Adams was then a minister for Great Britain. Their marriage conceived three children among them the Sixth president of United States, John Quincy Adams.  Her first child came into their lives almost immediately after marriage. Therefore, her first role as a wife was to raise these children. Her other roles in the family included helping her husband in managing finances for their household, and producing crops. In 1774, Abigail, was left behind by her husband as he went to serve the British government as a delegate of the colony in the First Continental Congress[5].  This period led to a correspondence between the two that forms the basis of much of the public debates regarding her. In these letters she passed various advices to her husband political questions. She also reflected her own observations as well as the unfolding events during the revolution. Abigail in 1776, when the Second Continental Congress came close, began to write letters to her husband telling him that there was need for new government to uplift the legal status of women to the level of men. Though she did not succeed in pushing him to admit the need to do this, her writing are the first known attempts to have women enjoy the same rights as men. She remained separated with her husband as he moved between countries in official duties, but she kept him informed of what was taking place locally. 

She took an active role in her husband political life. Following her husband election to the presidency of United States between March 179 7 and March 1801 as the second president, she rose to the status of First Lady. She stayed with him in Philadelphia and later on at Washington, D.C for a period of eighteen months in both places[6]. Often, she openly criticized those she considered to be against her husband Federal Party. The anti-Federalist inclined to Thomas Jefferson like Albert Gallatin became her immortal enemies and openly criticized her in press. He called her names and nicknamed her “Mrs. President not of the United States but a faction”. Although such statements hurt her a lot, she was not intimidated. She did not fear to give her personal opinion. She was not liked for her opinions, but was highly valued by her husband[7] Her influence on presidential appointments made her a number one enemy of the opposition. In addition, she consistently campaigned for freedom of African-American slaves and equality in education for girls. 

Just about the time the continental Congress gave the independence declaration in 1776, she had written a letter to her husband requesting him to put ladies into consideration while drafting new code of laws she argued that ladies were going to rebel if they were not going to be represented or given a voice. It is known that her husband refused to harkens to her statement, and Holton writes how she went ahead to revolt against these laws within her household[8]. As one of her letter in 1782, revealed, she took issue with the law degradation of women by giving husbands undue rights to control and even disposal of the properties of their wives. She went ahead to defy these laws and created her own wealth. In 1816, convinced she was in the edge of death she sat down and wrote down a will. Legally she did not have a right to own properties while her husband was alive and the mere act of drafting this will was an a act of rebellion. Even more intriguing is the fact that she decide to live her properties not to her sons, but to other married women. 

She is therefore, known to have initiated a revolution for personal property rights. Like many other patriots in the revolutionary period her husband abandoned his family for a very long period. As a result, he was not able to manage their properties. Abigail was therefore responsible for managing the financial aspects of the family and she was very good at it. She was very good at investing these fiancés because she was open to risks. She invested her husband money in government securities and other ventures. Out of this money she stashed away some, which she referred to as her own pocket money[9].  In her will she gave out most of her wealth to her granddaughters as compared to what she left for her male relatives. Holton argues that the main reason for doing this was not because she hated them, but because she wanted to cut her life as one of advocating for women rights to own property. Her will did not have any weight in the court of law, but it was honored by her husband. 

Mercy Otis Warren (1728-1814)

She was born in Barnstable, Massachusetts as the daughter of Colonel James Otis and Mary Allyne. Her parents did not take her to school, but she was allowed to attend her brother’s lesson, with his tutor Reverend Russell. Therefore, like Abigail Adams she also received exceptional training unlike other women of 18th century. Her brother, James Otis had great influence on the direction of her life. Besides, his influence in convincing their parents to allow her attend his lessons, his political life also shaped the path of her life. James Otis was brutally attacked as he walked towards British Coffee House in Occupied Boston by the British officers. This incident had a great impact on Mercy Otis life. 

Mercy had a talent for writing and she was urged on by her brother. He also took over her tutoring and was the first to read her initial poems. Her first writing was mainly influenced by her religious background. However, her writing was transformed and she became a political playwright, satirist, and historian. She married James Warren, in 1754. Her brother continued to influence her even in marriage life. It was time for the American Revolution and James Otis forged the phrase that “taxation without representation is tyranny” to oppose the British government oppressive taxes[10]. In the 1750s and 60 her husband John Warren and others joined her brother to form the Sons of Liberty. Her home hosted many political meetings and she was involved in deliberating liberty and independence issues. She played a key role in facilitating the growth of this movement by starting to write political satire through pamphlets, poems, and plays. 

Mercy Ortiz in particular took offense with certain individuals. She considered Governor Hutchinson’s actions as one of the reasons for her father political disappointments. She also associated the British attack on her brother to what later befell him, which is mental incapacitation. Following attack of James Otis in 1769, she decided to carry his mantle. She was determined to keep the mantle of liberty that his brother initiated with her writing. She also kept close friendship with Abigail Adams and John Adams. Together with her husband, these friends helped her to carry on her new role. John Adams in particular, helped her to publish her first play “the Adulateur” in 1772. It was published in the Massachusetts Spy and acted in Upper Servia. She used this play to criticize the governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson. She portrayed his leadership as being wicked. She criticized him and his allies for what she considered to be monopolization of public offices. This play also depicted the people she considered to be the patriots of the nation including James Warren, Sam Adams, and James Otis[11]. Her other plays like The Defeat (1773) as well as the Group (1779) also praised the patriots and rebuked the British troops and tyrannical leaders. They represent her filial emotions and patriotism[12].

Conclusion

These are two exception women involved in their own unique ways in shaping American future in the revolution period. Abigail comes out as a strong champion of women right to education and in property ownership. Her role as a political leader can also not be undermined, as she not only shaped her husband political direction prior to his presidency, but also during his tenure. On the other hand, Mercy Otis Warren comes out as an exceptional writer who uses her literary work to influence the public perception of patriotism and traitors. These two women depicts the strengths of women in the prehistoric time, despite not being well empowered by the society. They both did not get formal education, but they did great with the opportunity given to them by those who loved them.

References

Primary Sources

“First Lady Biography: Abigail Adams”. National First Ladies’ Library. Web

Black, Allida. “Abigail Smith Adams”. theWhite House. (2009). Web.

Hamlin, Joanne. Mercy Otis Warren: Patriot with a Pen. Helion Nine, Vol.8, (1983): 84-90.

Secondary Sources

Donnelly, M. A. Mercy Otis warren (1728-1814): Satirist of the American Revolution ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (1988).

Holton, Woody. Abigail Adams’ Last Act of Defiance. American History. 45.1, (2010). 56-61.

Wheeler, Jill C.  Abigail Adams. Edina, Minn: ABDO. (2010).

 

 

[1] Allida, Black. Abigail Smith Adams. theWhite House. (2009). Web.

[2] Jill C. Wheeler.  Abigail Adams. Edina, Minn: ABDO. (2010). p8.

[3] “First Lady Biography: Abigail Adams”. National First Ladies’ Library. Web.

[4] Jill C. Wheeler.  Abigail Adams. Edina, Minn: ABDO. (2010). p11

[5] Allida, Black. Abigail Smith Adams. theWhite House. (2009). Web.

 

[6] “First Lady Biography: Abigail Adams”. National First Ladies’ Library. Web

[7] Jill C. Wheeler.  Abigail Adams. Edina, Minn: ABDO. 2010. p4

[8] Woody Holton. Abigail Adams’ Last Act of Defiance. American History. 45.1, (2010). 57

[9] Woody Holton. Abigail Adams’ Last Act of Defiance. American History. 45.1, (2010). 59

[10] Joanne Hamlin. Mercy Otis Warren: Patriot with a Pen. Helion Nine, Vol.8, (1983): 86

[11] Joanne Hamlin. Mercy Otis Warren: Patriot with a Pen. Helion Nine, Vol.8, (1983): 87

[12] Marguerite Anne Donnelly. Mercy Otis warren (1728-1814): Satirist of the American Revolution ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (1988)..

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