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The Correlation Between The Proposed Introduction Of CBT And Local Attitudes In Barbados

Abstract

Tourism, Barbados’ major provider of foreign exchange has been experiencing worrying levels of tourism arrivals since the current world recession. The industry needs an injection of ideas to strengthen its portfolio because the economy of Barbados is increasingly declining. Although there is ample research on community-based tourism (CBT), there are no studies available as it relates to Barbados.  In particular, no research has been conducted on the relationship between CBT and local attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture in the context of Barbados. This cross-sectional, quantitative survey design will fill the gap that presently exists in the literature. The research questions seek to analyze the relationship between CBT, attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture. The sample of 162 persons will be interviewed from Christ Church and St. James, which are the two major tourist areas of Barbados. The proposed study should assist future tourism and management researchers, and should be of importance to tourism stakeholders of Barbados neighboring islands such as St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenada, which depend on tourism as a critical component of economic development.

            Keywords:  CBT, attitudes, expectations, culture, Barbados.

Proposal

      Table of Contents

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………vi

List of Figures …………………………………………………………………….…………….ii

Chapter 1:  Introduction to the Study ……………………………………………………,,,……..1

            Introduction………………………………………………………………………………1

            Background of the Study ……………………………………………………………….. 2

            Problem Statement …………………………………………………………………….… 6

            Purpose  Statement………………………………………………………………….……7

            Research Questions and Hypotheses ……………………………………………………8

                        Research Questions ………………………………………………………………8              Research Hypotheses ……………………………………………………………………8

            Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………………….9  Nature of the Study ………………………………………………………………………11

            Definitions ………………………………………………………………………………12

            Assumptions ……………………………………………………………………….……13

            Scope and Delimitations …………………………………………………………………13

            Limitations ………………………………………………………………………………14

            Significance of the Study ………………………………………………….……………15                                    

Summary …………………………………………………………………………..……………16

Chapter 2: The Review of the Literature …………………………………………….…………16

                                                                        i

Introduction …………………………………………………………….………………………16

            Restatement of Research Problem and Purpose ………………..………………………16

            Chapter Preview of Sections ……………………………………………………………17

            Global Recession and the World Economy …………………………….………………17

            Global Recession and the American Economy …………………………………………18

            Global Recession and the British Economy ………………………………….…………19

            Global Recession and Tourism …………………………………………………………19

            Global Recession and Barbados ……………………………………………..…………20

                        Global Recession and Barbados Tourism …………………….………………..21

            Literature Search Strategy ……………………………………………………………..23

                        Library Data Bases ………………………………………….…………………23

                        Search Key Terms Used ……………………………………………………….23

            Theoretical Foundations ………………………………………………………………..23

                        Name and Origin of CBT ………………………………………………………23

                        Positive Contributions of CBT to Economic Development ….….…………….24

                        Major Theoretical Propositions ………………………….……………………..25

            Tourism and Attitudes …………………………………………..…….……………….25

                        Definition of Attitudes ………………………………..…………….…………25

                        Tourism and Attitudes …………………………………………….…………..25

            Tourism and Expectations …………………………………………….………………37

                                                                                 ii

                        Definition of Expectations …………………………………….………………37

                        Tourism and Expectations ……………………………………………….…….37

            Tourism and Culture ……………………………………………………….………….51

                        Definition of Culture …………………………………………………………. 51

                        Tourism and Culture …………………………………………………………..51

            Summary of Conclusions ……………………………………………………………..61

                        Brief Summary of Major Themes in the Literature ………………….………..61

                                    Impact of Global Recession on Barbados …………………………….61

                                    CBT ……………………………………………………………………61

                                    Attitudes ………………………………………………………………62

                                    Expectations …………………………………………..………………63

                                    Culture ………………………………………………..……………….64

                        Known Concepts in the Literature and Transition to Chapter 3 ……………….65

Chapter 3:Methodology ………………………………………………………………………..65   Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………65

                        Purpose of the Study ………………………………………………………..…65

            Preview of Major Sections of the Chapter ……………………………………………66

            Research Design and Rationale ……………………………………………………….66

                        Study Variables ……………………………………………………….………66

                        Research Design and Connection to the Research Questions ……………..…66

                                                                        iii

                        Time and Resource constraints consistent with Design Choice ……..………67

                        How Design Choice is Consistent with Research Designs

                        Needed to Advance Knowledge in the Discipline ………….……………..…67

            Methodology …………………………………………………………………………68

                        Population …………………………………………………………….………68

                                    Target Population ……………………………………………….……68

                                    Estimation of Population Size ………………………………..………68

                        Sampling and Sampling Procedures …………………………………………68

                                    Non-Probability Sampling ……………………………………………68

                                                Convenience Sampling …………………………………………….69

                                                Purposive Sampling …………………………………..………69

                                                Quota Sampling ………………………………………………..69

                                    Probability Sampling ………………………….………………………69

                                                Random Sampling …………………………………….………69

                                                Systematic Sampling …………………………………….……69

                                                Stratified Sampling ……………………………………………69

                                                Cluster Sampling ………………………………………………70

                                    How the Sample will be Drawn ………………………….……………70

                                    Sample Frame Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ……………………….70

                                    Power Analysis …………………………………………………………70

                                                                                    iv

                                                Statistical Power ………………………………………………..70

                                                Alpha Level …………………………………………………… 70

                                                Effect Size ………………………………………………………71

                                    Determination of Sample Size …………………………………………72

                        Results ………………………………………………………………………….72

                        Recruiting Procedures and Demographic Information …………………………73

                                    Recruiting Procedures and Demographics ……………………………..73

                                    Providing Informed Consent to Participants and Data Collection …….74

                                    Data Collection …………………………………………….…………..74

                                    Debriefing and Follow-up Procedures ………………………….………74

                        Pilot Study ……………………………………………………………………..74

                        Researcher Instruments …………………………………………………………75

                        Plan to Provide Evidence for Reliability ………………………………………76

                        Instrument Validity ……………………………………………….……………77

                                    Content Validity …………………………………………………….….77

                                                Face Validity ………………………………………………..….77

                                                Sampling Validity ………………………………………………77

                                    Empirical (Predictive) Validity …………………………………………77

                                    Construct Validity ………………………………………………………77

                                    Plan to Provide Evidence of Instrument Validity  ………………..…….78

                                                                                    v

                        Operationalizing  the Variables …………………………………………………78

                        Operationalizing Attitudes ………………………………………………………78

                        Operationalizing Expectations ……………………………………………..…….78

                        Operationalizing Culture ……………………………………………………..….78

            Data Analysis Plan …………………………………………………………………..…..79

                        Software …………………………………………………………………..……..79

            Restatement of Research Questions and Hypotheses ……………………………………79

                        Research Questions ………………………………………………………….…..79

                        Research Hypotheses ……………………………………………………….……79

                        Analysis Plan ………………………………………………………………..….80

                        Interpretation of Results …………………………………………………..……80

            Threats to External Validity …………………………………………………………….82

                        Addressing Threats to External Validity ……………………………………….82

            Threats to Internal Validity ……………………………………………………………..82

                        Addressing Threats to Internal Validity …………………………………..…….83

                        Threats to Content Validity …………………………………………………….83

            Ethical Procedures ……………………………………………………………….……..83

            Summary of Research Methodology ……………………………………………….…..84

            References ………………………………………………………………………………85

            Appendix A: Consent Form ……………………………………………………………127

                                                                        vi

            Appendix B: Confidentiality Agreement Form …………………………………..……131

            Appendix C:  Letter of Cooperation from a Community Research Partner ……………133

            Appendix D: Sample Data Collection Coordination Request Form …………………………136

            Appendix E: Data Use Agreement Form ………………………………………………139

            Appendix F: Authorization to use or Disclose PHI for Research Purpose ,,,,,,,,,,,……..143

            Appendix G: Questionnaire on Residents’ Attitudes  …………………………………145

            Appendix H: Questionnaire on Residents’ Expectations ………………………….…. 146

            Appendix I:   Questionnaire on Residents’ Opinions on Cultural Change…………….147

            Appendix J:  Variables and Sources for Items in Survey Instrument – Attitudes…….. 148

            Appendix K:  Variables and Sources for Items in Survey Instrument – Expectations ,..150

            Appendix L: Variables and Sources for Items in Survey Instrument

                        Cultural Change …………………………………………………….………… 152

            Appendix M:  Information on Participants Form ………………………………………154

List of Tables

            Table 1. Barbados Tourist Arrivals for the Years 2007-2012 …………………………..3

            Table 2. Increase/Decrease in Barbados Tourist Arrivals for the Years 2007-2012…….3

            Table 3. Barbados GDP, Inflation, Unemployment, and Public Debt Rates for the

                        Periods 2008- 2012 ……………………………………………………….……21

            Table 4. Total Land-Based Tourist Arrivals to Barbados 2008-2012 …………………22

            Table 5. Total Land-Based Tourist Arrivals to Barbados by Country 2008-2012 ……22

                                                                        viii                              

List of Figures

Figure 1. Calculation of Sample Size using G* Power………………………….………………71 

Figure 2. Map of Barbados by Parish……………………………………………………………73 

Introduction

Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries worldwide. Globally, income generated by this industry rose from US $2 billion to US $919 billion. The number of tourists travelling grew from 25 million people to 940 million persons.   Tourism contributes to millions of worldwide  jobs and businesses. (Bruyere, Adam, & Lelengula, 2009; Jackman, Lorde, Lowe, & Alleyne, 2011; Sharma & Dyer, 2009).

The islands of the Eastern Caribbean are Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. They are characterized by low productivity, high costs, high debt to GDP ratios, and volatile tourism industries (Acevedo, Cebotari, & Turner-Jones (2013, February 20).

            Tourism is Barbados’ main earner of foreign exchange. As a net foreign exchange contributor, it plays a significant role in the maintenance of businesses, job creation, and  purchases of foreign goods and services. It’s contribution to employment and gross domestic product is  47% and 46.6% respectively.  (Jackman, Lorde, Lowe, & Alleyne, 2011).                    There is no single definition for community-based tourism (CBT), but it can be described as a tourism program that is managed and serviced by members of the local resident community. Although not limited to rural destinations, CBT is widely characterized as being carried out in  rural communities, where local residents are in charge of the program’s operations(Harrsion, 2008; Lopez-Guzman, Borges, & Castillo-Canalejo, 2011).

The Barbados tourism industry has been underperforming for over 5 years. The main reason for the reduction in tourists is the negative economic impact of the global recession which began in 2008 (Adebamowo, 2011; Barbados Ministry of Tourism, 2011; Li, 2011). This study will assist tourism-planning stakeholders of Barbados and other small Caribbean states that are dependent on tourism in identifying how local Barbados residents would respond to the implementation of CBT to the island. This response is related to residents’ attitudes, expectations, and cultural changes.   Local tourism planners would  have an advantage in planning CBT strategies because before the program is implemented, they should be able to indicate how residents would respond  in the context of their (the residents’) attitudes, expectations, and cultural changes to commencement of CBT.  The implementation of CBT to Barbados should lead to positive social change by increasing numbers of tourists arriving in Barbados, and consequentially, increasing foreign exchange. An increase in foreign exchange should lead to a reduction in unemployment and increased business creation and investments by the Barbados government and private sector.  This study will also add to the literature by filling the existing gap as it relates to the proposal to implement CBT and its relation to local attitudes, expectations, and cultural changes in small, tourism-dependent economies.

Background of the Study

            Barbados is the most easterly of the eastern chain of the islands of the Eastern Caribbean. As at March, 2013, the population of the country was estimated to be 200,725 persons (Central intelligence Agency, 2013). Barbados was mainly dependent on sugar cane as its main export product and source of foreign exchange like most of its Eastern, small state neighbors; however, during the 1950s, the island changed its export strategy by shifting to tourism.  Long-stay tourists increased from 17829 in 1956 to 536,303 in 2012 (Barbados Ministry of Tourism, 2011; Caribbean Tourism Organization, n.d.).  

             Successive Barbados governments have invested significantly in the tourism industry over the years. Since 1971, tourism has contributed to between 10% -12% of the island’s gross domestic product (GDP), and has been the major monetary driver of foreign earnings (Lorde, Francis & Drakes, 2011).  However, the numbers of tourists to the island have not increased in any marked volume since the global recession of 2008. Tourist arrivals have been sporadic, and in some instances, declined (Worrell, Belgrave, & Grosvenor, 2011). The Caribbean Tourism Organization (n.d; 2012; 2013) listed Barbados tourist arrivals to the island for the last six years as follows:

Table 1

_________________________________________________________________

Barbados Tourist Arrivals for the Years 2007 – 2012

__________________________________________________________________

2007                    2008             2009                 2010                2011                2012

572,937             567,667         518,564           532,180           567,724           536,303

___________________________________________________________________

Note: Adapted from “Individual Country Statistics (2010, 2009, 2007, 2006, 2004)” by  Caribbean Tourism Organization (n.d).

“Latest Statistics 2011” by Caribbean Tourism Organization (2012, July 02).

“Latest Statistics 2012” by Caribbean Tourism Organization (2013, March 08).

            Based on the above tourist arrivals, the following are total and percentage increases and decreases over the six years’ period 2007-2012:

Table 2

____________________________________________

Increase/Decrease in Barbados Tourist Arrivals

for the Years 2007 – 2012

____________________________________________

Years                 Total      Percentage

                         Increase     Increase

                      -Decrease    -Decrease

2007- 2008      -5,270        -0.0091

2008- 2009      -49,103       -0.0864

2009 –2010     13,616         0.0262

2010- 2011      35,544         0.0667

2011-2012       -31,421       -0.0553

____________________________________________

Note: Adapted from “Individual Country Statistics (2010, 2009, 2007, 2006, 2004)” by  Caribbean Tourism Organization (n.d).

“Latest Statistics 2011” by Caribbean Tourism Organization (2012, July 02).

“Latest Statistics 2012” by Caribbean Tourism Organization (2013, March, 08).

            The Barbados tourism industry needs to be revitalized in order to make gains in the global tourism market.  CBT was identified as a form of tourism that can aid tourism recovery (Diss & Trent, 2009); as a result, it might be able to initiate a recovery of the Barbados economy. 

            The literature records varying views as it relates to CBT, local attitudes, expectations, and cultural changes:

            Saarinen (2010) declared that positive local views and attitudes toward tourism play an important part in a successful tourism program. Hurst, Niehm, and Littrell (2009) highlighted the need for local residents to harness positive attitudes  toward tourists in order for tourism to create a foundation for a successful tourism program. Kennett-Hensel, Sneath, and Hensel (2010) were of the view that, in order for a tourism master plan to be successful, local resident attitudes would have to be in positive alignment and supportive of the effort.

            Razzaq et al. (2011) showed that expectations of rewards can play a part in the motivation of residents to ensure that a CBT program is successful. Kayat (2008) concluded that local stakeholders were committed to CBT when their interests were positively affected and when they were allowed to take part in managing the program.  Stone and Stone (2011) advanced the need for tourism stakeholders to promote programs among local residents that would foster a higher level of local expectation in CBT programs                    

            Baum, Hearns, and Devine (2008) contended that with the passing of time, local attitudes, expectations, and perception toward tourism change due to  changes in societal norms and values derived from the impact of  sustained tourism. Abga, Ikoh, Bassey, and Ushie (2010) contended that tourism penetrated and diluted local culture.   Mhizha, Mandebyu, and Muzondo (2012) suggested  that tourism had an overwhelmingly negative impact on society’s culture. It was, however, asserted that tourism could have a positive effect on culture where a unique cultural resource is in demand by tourists, and local residents were in control of that resource. 

            The studies above highlight the interaction of the variables: CBT (independent variable),  and  local attitudes, expectations, and cultural shifts (dependent variables), as they relate to different locations.  However, the settings do not relate to Barbados. A study would be, therefore, be needed that could  identify how these  variables would react in the context of Barbados. The findings of the research should assist Barbados’ tourism planners, and fill the gap that presently exists in the literature as it relates to Barbados.

Problem  Statement

            Tourism has been Barbados’ leading engine of economic growth for the past five decades. In 2008, it accounted for 14% of GDP, 10% of employment, and 54% of foreign currency earnings. However, meaningful and sustained growth has been stalled since the 2008 world recession. As a result, the island has lost a significant portion of its global and local regional market share, with   tourism real value-added declining by an estimated 9.8% as its traditional target markets performed poorly (Government of Barbados, 2009; Pattaranukul, 2008).  Compounding the matter, tourism growth for Barbados has been slower than that of its Caribbean neighbors; in particular, Antigua and Barbuda, and St. Lucia (Worrell, Belgrave, Grosvenor, & Lescott,  2011). The International Monetary Fund (2011) predicted that Barbados’ foreign reserves will continue to fall due to weak external demand for tourism.   The government of Barbados reacted to the slowdown in tourism and economic growth by reducing expenditure and aborting certain social programs (Barbados Economics Society, 2010; Central Bank of Barbados, 2012).  

            Barbados’ tourism industry has a greater potential to improve; however, there is a need to introduce novel and effective programs to complement and assist its current tourism operations.   CBT was  identified as an emerging line of tourism in the world market that contributed substantially to the building of small states’economies  (Kavat, 2008; Okazaki, 2008;  Xiong, Ding, Deng, &Zhang, 2008).  CBT has increased the standard of living in many of the countries in which it is operational (Marx, 2011); however, some studies indicate that implementation of CBT can be fraught with challenges as it relates to attitudes, expectations, and cultural changes(Candrea, Ispas, Constantin, & Hertanu, 2012; Kesar & Ferjanic, 2008; Lorant, 2011, Wright & Lewis, 2012).         

             Presently, there are no studies in the literature that have evaluated the relationship between Barbados’ local population’s attitudes, expectations, changes in local culture, and the implementation of CBT. This research will seek to fill that gap.

            Creswell (2009) stipulated that quantitative research is a ”means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among the variables” (p.233). The design of this study will be quantitative because the relationship between the independent variable (CBT) and dependent variables (local attitudes, expectations, and change in culture) will be examined.

                                                            Purpose Statement

            Barbados is experiencing a slowdown in its tourism industry due to the economic downturn of the United Kingdom and the United States of America, which are its main sources of tourists (International Monetary Fund, 2010). A strengthened tourism industry should assist Barbados `in arresting its economic problems by increasing much-needed foreign exchange. The purpose of this proposed quantitative study is to evaluate resident attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture through proposed implementation of CBT in the context of Barbados. It is expected that  being able to pre-determine resident attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture should enable tourism stakeholders to minimize mistakes and have an advantage in CBT implementation. Furthermore, the purpose of the proposed study is to provide recommendations for successful implementation of proposed CBT model to enhance tourism in Barbados.

            A quantitative study involves determining the relationship among the independent and dependent variables of the inquiry; it does not determine why the variables react. Qualitative research involves exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals or groups; it is not concerned with examining the relationship among variables. Mixed method inquiry combines both features of quantitative and qualitative inquiry (Creswell, 2009).

            A quantitative design is chosen for this proposed research because the purpose of the statistical tests will be to determine the extent of the relationship between the independent variable (CBT) and the dependent variables (attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture).

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The following research questions and hypotheses are formulated to address the main research problem statement:

Research Questions

            RQ1: What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and local                                    attitudes in Barbados?

            RQ2:  What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and local                                   expectations in Barbados?

            RQ3:  What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and changes in                          local culture in Barbados?

Research Hypotheses

 Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the proposed introduction of CBT and                         local attitudes in Barbados.

Ha1:  There is a significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                             local attitudes in Barbados.

Ho2:   There is no significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and

           local expectations  in Barbados.

Ha2:   There is a significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                            local expectations in Barbados.

Ho3:  There is no significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                         changes in local culture in Barbados.

Ha3: There is a significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                            changes in local culture in Barbados.

Theoretical Framework      

            This study will identify the relationship between the independent variable, CBT, and the dependent variables, local attitudes, expectations, and change in culture in the context of Barbados. The theoretical framework of this study seeks to provide a foundation for the varying thoughts on CBT, attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture.

            Tourism is a major global billion dollar industry that is responsible for worldwide creation of millions of jobs, business ventures,  productivity, and disbursed wealth creation(Lorde, 1995). The attempt of CBT is to divide widely the gains of tourism into the community by creating  division of wealth among broader spectra of society (Sharma & Dyer, 2009).    Different views exist pertaining to the importance and effectiveness of CBT. Lorrant (2011) underscored the need for positive local resident attitudes to effect a successful CBT program. It was suggested;  however, that in order for attitudes to be positive, tourism stakeholders needed to:  integrate tourism in general governmental planning, broaden its outreach base by initiating programs to help the economy, involve the local community in planning strategies, promote training programs for workers, engage in responsible tourism marketing, and develop a tourism program that is part of government planning, inclusive of society on a whole. Ho (2011) found that residents’ attitudes towards tourism varied  in accordance with the impact felt by local residents as a result of the type of strategy that was practiced by tourism stakeholder-planners..

            Jim and Xu (2002) submitted that local residents’ attitudes toward the outcome of a tourism program were related to variables such as places of residence, social background, age, and traveling experience. Mehta and Heinen’s 2001 study recommended the  importance and need for positive  resident attitudes and expectations as a precursor to  successful CBT implementation. Brida, Osti, and Faccioli (2011) stated that local residents’ expectations of tourism could be influenced by the dynamics of lobbying groups within the area of domain.  Vanagas and Jagminas (2011) asserted that a successful tourism program must include local residents  at the heart of its administrative and management functioning. It was also recognized that the success or failure of the program was influenced by the attitudes and expectations of  indigenous  residents.  Jakpar, Johari, Myint, and Nazatul  (2011) agreed that  local expectations  of CBT were dependent on  age, gender, and educational background. In general: younger persons held more negative expectations,  older persons reacted more positively; females were less responsive than males, less educated persons held negative perceptions, and the expectations of more educated persons were positive.  Jackson (2008)  noted that residents held positive expectations as long as they perceived that benefits of the program outweigh any associated costs.  Yu (2002) asserted that rural tourism was affected by the expectations of tourists towards the market. This  research highlighted other expectation factors such as  closeness to the natural environment, the quest to improve family happiness, relaxation, friendliness of the people, prices, parking facilities, farm life experiences, and recreational activities.    

              Wang, Bickle, and Harrill (2010) stated that residents’ attitudes as they related to tourism were generally positive, but became negative as tourism increased and the cultural,   natural landscape changed in accord with economic development. Tao and Wall (2009) commented that local resistance to cultural change associated with increased tourism could lead to an increase in unemployment. 

             The literature highlights the positive contribution of CBT; however, the difficulties in establishing and setting-up the program are not always apparent. Locations  may differ in their ability to establish and sustain CBT by considerations such as faulty telecommunication systems, inadequate road networks, overcrowding, entrenched cultural habits and the ability of the local people to adapt to change. (Alvarez-Albelo & Hernandez-Martin, 2012;  Hsieh & Chen, 2008; Kuvan  & Akan 2012). These problems make it difficult for CBT to make a meaningful contribution to an economy.  Hence, deep-rooted cultural habits may act as a barrier to successful CBT. McAlpin (2007) advocated and praised the effectiveness of cultural tourism in the context of ecotourism, but identified areas of concern  in certain aspects of the program such as weaknesses in management planning, and the development of  doubt in the ability of the program to be successful.

Nature of the Study

            Qualitative research involves exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals or groups; it is not concerned with examining the relationship between variables, as is the case with quantitative research.  Mixed method inquiry combines both features of quantitative and qualitative inquiry (Creswell, 2009; Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). For the purposes of this study, a quantitative design was chosen because an examination of the relationship between the variables will be undertaken.  This research will not seek to explore or understand the meaning of individuals or groups. The independent variable of this research will be CBT while attitudes, expectations of local households, and changes in local culture will be the dependent variables.  

            This study will examine if there is a relationship between the proposed introduction of CBT to Barbados and local attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture.  The outcome of the research should form a basis for conceptualizing a CBT program for Barbados and provide recommendations for successful implementation of proposed CBT model to enhance tourism in Barbados.

            Questionnaires will be used to collect data and will be collected from random samples of households living in the tourist areas of Christ Church and St. James of Barbados. The participants of households will be decision- making adults who should be able to take part in a CBT program. In addition, data will be collected from planners and experts from Barbados tourism industry via will questionnaire in the study to assist in proposing a customized CBT model that is in alignment with the local attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture.

An F test, using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be used. This test was recommended by Sheperis (n.d) for tests of association. This research will involve examining if there is a correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and residents’ attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture.

Definitions

            The following are definitions of key concepts. In chapter 2, these will be further broken-down.

            Tourism: Consists of activities of leisure, business, or other purposes undertaken by  persons staying outside of their homes for under one year ( Kavousy, Royaei, & Ebrahimpour, 2011).                                                                                                                                                                    Community-Based Tourism (CBT): Tourism in which tourists are invited to spend time with indigenous residents, where the needs of the visitors are managed by the local personnel ( Wanjohi, (2003).

            Attitude:  A psychological expression of evaluating a particular entity either negatively or positively (Eagly & Chalken, 2007).

            Expectation: An anticipation of what is perceived to occur (Staniszewska & Ahmed,         1999)

            Societal Culture: System of action composed of interactions between individuals, which are mediated by common standards of evaluation (Malul, Shoham, & Zolotoy, 2011).

            Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The volume of goods and services produced by an economy within a year (Dunaev, 2004).

            Economy: The distribution and consumption of goods and services by a How a particular nation uses its resources to distribute goods and services (Swart & Orsmond, 2010).

            ANOVA: Analysis of Variance.

            SPSS:     Statistical package for the social sciences.

Assumptions

            The following assumptions were made for the preparation of this study:

·         Participants of the study would be truthful in their reporting.

·         Reporting by participants was not due to any external influences.

·         Results of the researched areas could be replicated for the entire island of Barbados.

Scope and Delimitations

            This scope of this study is limited to 252  participants from the parishes of St. Michael, Christ Church, and  St. James, Barbados.  Christ Church and St. James are the main tourist areas of the island, while St. Michael is the largest parish with the greatest number of residents. The sample is to be selected by simple random sampling, and questionnaires will be used as the data gathering instrument. The purpose of the selection is to test and ascertain if there is a correlation between the introduction of CBT to Barbados and local attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture.   An analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS will be used to test for correlation between the independent variable (CBT), and the dependent variables (attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture). This study is a quantitative study and does not seek to ascertain the   reason why the variables respond. It will highlight how they responded. Hence, the research will identify the possibility of how the independent variables will respond to the proposed introduction of CBT into Barbados.  Hotel workers were not included in this study because this inquiry relates to households who would be directly involved with tourists in a CBT environment. However, government tourism officials will be  included.

Limitations

            This study is a quantitative study and is reflective of the characteristics of quantitative design, which has its advantages and its disadvantages. The categories mentioned as dependent variables may not necessarily represent all the important variables that may correlate with CBT, but which may not have been mentioned. One way to minimize this problem would be to increase the number of variables of the study. The study’s concern with theory and response of the independent variables and hypothesis testing may not take into account theory or other developments that might exist, but were not identified because of the structure of quantitative design.  Collected data is based and limited to the structure of the questions of the research instrument. Restructuring the questionnaire to include opinions of the subjects could minimize researcher bias and help to develop greater depth of the subject.

Significance of the Study

            This research is unique because there are no studies at present that describe the potential correlation between CBT, attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture as it relates to Barbados. This inquiry is also important because there is a paucity of research pertaining to CBT and small tourist-dependent economies of the Eastern Caribbean such as St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Tobago, and Grenada. This study will add to the knowledge base of the existing literature.

            In the area of practice, this study should be beneficial and act as a catalyst for  advanced tourism strategizing because it will equip tourism- planning stakeholders with prior knowledge of residents’ attitudes, expectations, and potential cultural changes as they relate to the implementation of CBT in Barbados.  CBT has been responsible for developing and strengthening weak tourism industries and providing residents of rural areas with jobs and increased economic opportunities (Bourdreaux, 2008; Butts & Sukhdeo-Singh, 2010; Srisuwan, Chantachan, & Thidpad, 2011; Yang, Hens, Ou, & De Wulf, 2009); hence, tourism-planners should be able to initiate strategies with prior understanding of how the local population would  respond.

            This proposed study will contribute to positive social change in Barbados because a CBT policy that is based on community’s input should improve Barbados’ tourism industry and the inflows of foreign currency.  Increased foreign exchange would be pivotal in forming the basis for expanded and new business creations, increased government and private sector spending, and additional employment opportunities. Hence, this proposed study should also have similar benefits for Barbados’ tourism-dependent neighboring islands such as St. Lucia, Dominica, Tobago, and St. Lucia.

Summary

            This chapter briefly summarized: the serious downturn in Barbados tourism; the need to address the problem; the potential of CBT to assist in the reconstruction of the Barbados tourism industry, and examining a correlation between the independent variable, CBT and the dependent variables, local attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture. The next chapter will detail the research gap, the research problem, and the literature as it relates to CBT and its correlation to attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture in general, and particularly in Barbados.

CHAPTER 2: THE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

Restatement of Research Problem and Purpose

            The Barbados tourism industry was severely weakened by the impact of the global recession which became effective in 2008. There has been a general slowdown in the economy and general economic activity in Barbados. Barbados’ main source of foreign currency earnings is tourism; this sector has been particularly negatively affected by the Great Recession  (Central Bank of Barbados, 2012; International Monetary Fund, 2011). CBT is a line of tourism that has helped to improve sluggish tourism industries and the economies of nations (Diss, 2008; Ruckman, 2008). The recommendations of the results of this proposed study should assist in improving  Barbados’ tourism industry. The purpose of this proposed study is to evaluate the correlation between the proposed implementation of CBT and resident attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture in the context of Barbados. It should assist tourism stakeholders in their planning efforts to improve this premier and crucial foreign revenue- earning industry. The results of the study may be generalizable to similar nations in the Caribbean such as St. Lucia and Tobago that depend significantly on tourism earnings. 

                                                    Chapter Preview of Sections

             This chapter is based on a review of the literature as it pertains to CBT; however, the research problem has its genesis in the current global recession (Jovovic, 2012; Trabelsi, 2011). Therefore, a brief overview is given of the global recession and its impact on global tourism, and particularly tourism in Barbados.  In addition, the impacts of recession in the United States and England on Barbados tourism are also examined.   

            The literature search strategy outlines the key words and phrases used in accessing the literature from the various data bases. The theoretical framework describes the origin of CBT, the positive contribution of CBT to economic development, and the major propositions that were gleaned from the literature. A review of the literature as it relates to the independent variable, CBT, and dependent variables, attitudes, expectations, and culture was also discussed. The chapter ends with an evaluation of the literature as it relates to the  proposed implementation of CBT to Barbados, and its possible relationship to local attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture. 

                                         Global Recession and the World Economy

            The present global recession has been regarded as the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of 1929.  In some instances, major banks of industrialized nations collapsed, and the Central Bank of America was forced to intervene and initialize financial procedures to ensure that banks stood afloat. The genesis of the problem emanated from a buildup of payment promises in the banking system that developed from the 1990s Asian financial crisis. This amassed credit (with an emphasis in the American housing market)  culminated in consumers’ inability to repay, which triggered a domino-like effect among the industrialized nations that quickly spread to developing and underdeveloped countries. Global economic instability and uncertainty were the fruits of the recession (Jovovic, 2012; Trabelsi, 2011). The worsening of the recession was   averted by the institution of macroeconomic policies at the international level (Asada, 2010). 

                                             Global Recession and American Economy

            Barbados’ economy is significantly dependent on the fortunes of the United States and England which are its main suppliers of tourists (Worrell, Belgrave, Grosvenor, and Lescott, 2011). In December 2007, the American economy descended into what might be the deepest and longest downturn since the great depression. The driving force behind the recession was the collapse of the subprime market in authorizing mortgage loans to weak credit applicants. The failure of these persons to repay their loans triggered a general collapse of the United States’ banking system. The banking system’s breakdown affected other economic systems until there was a general recession in the United States’ economy. The decline in the United States’ economic activity affected economies worldwide and formed the basis for the global recession (Chitiba, Olaru, & Olaru, 2010; Levine, 2009). The global recession resulted in mass business failures and corporation layoffs.  Banks that never reported a loss were dissolved in a matter of days. Initially, only the banking system was affected; however, the downturn   affected the non-banking system and expanded worldwide (Chitiba, Olaru, & Olaru, 2010). The effect of the Global recession in America gave rise to financial hardship, and social problems for middle and working-class families whose standard of living declined, and as a result, became increasingly marginalized (Gillespie, 2011).

                                                 Global Recession and the British Economy

             The economic collapse of 2008 brought the previous 15 years of British financial stability and economic success to an end (Gamble, 2009). In the fourth quarter of 2008, and in January, 2009, the British economy shrank by 1.6%.  In the second quarter of 2012, the GDP dropped by 0.7% and unemployment stood at 2.03million (United Kingdom Country Monitor, 2012, August). A deepening gap of inequality widened between the middle and working classes (Anonymous, 2009; Irwin, 2008). In respect of banking, by the end of 2009 the number of borrowers three months or more in arrears amounted to 270,400 persons, and repossessd homes totaled 46,000 units. The mortgage market contracted from 360 billion pounds in 2007 to an estimated 145 billion pounds in 2009. Mortgage arrears, credit rationing, and lack of confidence in the banking sector began to grow. This was compounded by an increase in unemployment which spurred the growth of destabilization in the financial markets (Wallace & Ford, 2010). Paradoxically, some companies hoarded billions of pounds in cash while retrenching workers due to economic uncertainty; as a result, the recession problem compounded.  Hawkes (2012) mentioned BAE systems having cash funds of 2.1 billion pounds while retrenching 22,000 workers, including 3000 in the United Kingdom.  Overall, the United Kingdom’s financial and banking services were significantly affected and weakened. In 2008, job losses in this sector amounted to 220,000, and were expected to rise to 500,000 by 2011 (Economic Outlook, 2009, July).

                                                      Global Recession and Tourism

            The global recession has had a negative impact on tourism and the airline industry. The current recession has lasted longer and spread wider than recessions of past decades. It has caused developed economies to contract, and underdeveloped economies to slow down (Murgoci, Firoiu, Jonescu, & Jonescu, 2009).  Developed economies started reducing investment in developing economies, causing worldwide investments to decline. Demand for high-end hotel rooms declined sharply in parallel with the turmoil experienced with stock markets due to businesses cutting  back on travel expenses. The airlines industry experienced a drop in passenger occupancy and revenue yields, and air traffic decreased by 6.1 percent (Welch, 2012).  In an effort to increase sales, and because of the increased pressure on yields,  the industry resorted to discounted  ticket prices and initiated  internal cost-cutting devices such as job redundancies; however,  in some cases this amounted to a decrease in profitability due to fixed and increased contracted supplier costs, which remained high (Jones, 2009).

Global Recession and the Barbados Economy

            The global recession severely affected the Barbados economy. The decrease in tourist arrivals negatively affected other related and critical industries such as construction and export trade. Despite a number of government-led policy initiatives to ease the impact of the recession, aggregate demand contracted and unemployment and government public and fiscal deficits stood at worryingly high levels (Estevao, 2010). Barbados enjoyed a steady growth rate at an average of 3.3% for the preceding six years prior to 2008 (Anonymous, 2009). However, growth contracted negatively by -0.2% and -4.2% for the years 2008 and 2009, marginally increasing during the years 2010-2012. Unemployment and the public debt have been major concerns for the government because these items continued to grow for the periods 2008-2012. The table below shows aspects of the performance of the Barbados economy for global recessionary periods 2008 – 2012:

Table 3

______________________________________________________________________________            Barbados GDP, Inflation, Unemployment, and Public Debt Rates for the Periods

            2008 – 2012

______________________________________________________________________________

                                                                         2008     2009    2010    2011      2012

Real GDP Growth                                          -0.2%    -4.2%   0.2%    0.5%      0.9%

Inflation                                                            8.0       3.7%    5.8%    9.4%      6.4%          

Unemployment Rate                                       8.4%    10.2%  10.6%   11.5%     11%

Public Dept (\General Public Gross

                      Debt as a % of GDP)               90.9%   104%  116.8%  117.3%  117.8%                                                      

Public Deficit (General Govt. Net Lending/

                        Borrowing as a % of GDP)     -6.5%   -7.1%   -7.3%      -4.3%    -3.2%

______________________________________________________________________________

 Note: Adapted from Barbados Statistical Services (2013); Global Finance (2013, May).

Global Recession and Barbados Tourism

            Land-based tourist arrivals to Barbados experienced a declension in numbers. While there were occasions of sporadic dips and rises, overall, tourism declined from the inception of the global recession. In 2008, 569,245 visitors arrived on the shores of Barbados; by 2012 the numbers decreased to 536,303, representing a 5% decline over the five-year span. The following table shows the tourist arrivals to Barbados for the periods 2008-2012:

Table 4

______________________________________________________________________________

Total Land-Based Tourist Arrivals to Barbados 2008-2012

______________________________________________________________________________

                                          2008       2009        2010        2011        2012

                                      569,245   518,564   532,180   567,724   536,303

Note: Adapted from Barbados Statistical Services (2013)

Table 5

______________________________________________________________________________

Total Land-Based Tourist Arrivals to Barbados by Country, 2008-2012

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Note:  Barbados Statistical Services (2013)

            The table above shows that the United States and United Kingdom were the main sources of tourist supply. The global recession’s negative impact on these two countries correlates with the decline in tourists coming from both countries. 

Literature Search Strategy

Library Data Bases

            The literature search strategy utilized academic literature from library data bases and professional literature obtained from the web sites of organizations. The academic literature search was assisted by the following data bases: AB/IFORM Complete, Academic Search Complete, Business Source Complete, Dissertations & Theses, Dissertations & Theses at Walden University, ebrary, ERIC – Educational Resource Information Center, Emerald Management Journals, Expanded Academic ASAP,  Hospitality and Tourism Complete, ProQuest Central, PsycARTICLES, SAGE Premier, Science Direct, SocINDEX with full text, and Web of Knowledge.  The professional literature search used the organizational data bases of the Barbados Central Bank, Government of Barbados, Barbados Statistical Service, Barbados Ministry of Tourism, Barbados Economics Society, Barbados Tourism Authority,  Central Intelligence Agency, and the International Monetary Fund.

Key Search Terms Used

            This study focused on evaluating local attitudes, expectations, and changes in culture through proposed implementation of CBT in the context of Barbados. Keywords and terms used in the searches included: tourism, community-based tourism, global recession, global recession and Barbados, global recession and tourism, global recession and Barbados tourism, global recession and the United States, global recession and the United Kingdom, community-based tourism and attitudes, community-based tourism and expectations, and community-based tourism and culture.

Theoretical Foundations

Name and Origin of CBT

             CBT was defined by Dolezal (2011) as a model of tourism where management of the industry was  largely administered and carried out by the local people, who were usually from rural areas.  The concept became prominent from the participatory and development discourse models of the 1970s and has been long linked to rural areas of development. Giampiccoli and Kalis (2012) stated, however, that there was  no universal definition of the concept because, at times, CBT could mean different things to different people in the context of its development thrust.  According to Giampiccoli and Kallis (2012) CBT can take on developmental forms as community-shared systems, individually owned village stays, and can be connected to entities outside the rural community.

Positive Contributions of CBT to Economic Development

            Nkemngu (2011) stated that CBT had a role in positively contributing to sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism was characterized as having the  following components: (a) participation of all stakeholders such as government, non- governmental organizations (NGOs), community members and investors, (b) funding from private and public donors, (c) transfer of skills from the developed to undeveloped communities, and (d) donations of needed equipment and machinery.  Hence, according to Nkemngu (2011), one feature of CBT is its positive contribution to sustainable tourism, which, by extension, would make its mark in increased economic activity and community development. This concept was supported by Kennett-Hensel, Sneath, and  Hensel, (2010) whose study revealed that the proper application of CBT could be used as a tool to promote sustainable tourism and long-term economic development.                                  Shikida, Yoda, Kino, and Masayuk (2010) agreed that sustainable tourism could be promoted by CBT, but there would have to be planned cooperation between community stakeholders and extra-community stakeholders.

Major Theoretical Propositions  

            The theoretical framework for this proposed study is based on Mehta and Heinen’s 2001 research which dealt with the reaction of local residents to CBT. The results revealed that some residents held positive attitude while there were others who conjured negative expectations and were not in favor of implementing CBT.   Resident expectations and attitudes toward CBT are critical because the success or failure of CBT program can be influenced by the actions of residents (Vanagas & Jagminas, 2011). The inquiry of Mehta and Heinen (2001) will serve as a guide to for this proposed study in identifying resident attitudes and perceptions toward CBT in the context of Barbados.

Tourism and Attitudes

Definition of Attitude

            An attitude is a settled trait or action that emanates from feelings or opinions (Oxford

English Dictionary, 2013.). Olson and Kendrick (2012) stated that attitudes  provide a basis of

how people react to phenomena and that attitudes  are derived from past experiences. It was also

noted that once formed, attitudes can be the basis for behavioral actions. A counter view

contends that attitudes  may not necessarily be a predictor or  related to behavior (Elen, D’Heer,

Geuens, & Vermeir, 2013). This section will, however, cite literature to examine how attitudes

relate to tourism initiatives.

Tourism and Attitudes

            Many studies posit the benefits of CBT – its contribution to employment, cultural growth, income earned, structural and economic growth, and development of positive attitudes among residents based on its important contributions. However, this assertion is not shared by all. Lapeyre (2010) agreed that CBT made positive contributions to economic development, but that challenges could occur to weaken its effectiveness in areas such as: (a) high cost of program maintenance, (b) weak managerial program control, and (3) inadequate government and nongovernment funding.                                                                                                                             

            Attitudinal changes may be an important factor in promoting sustainable tourism, but this is a continuous process because it involves the perpetual building of the tourism industry.  Consequently, sustainability should be the goal of tourism policy makers, but how to achieve sustainability is debatable (Jarvis, Weeden., & Simcock, 2010). Matarrita-Cascante, Brennan, and Luloff (2010) contended that the introduction of CBT in itself could not guarantee sustainable tourism and that certain attitudinal changes would be required by all CBT stakeholders for sustainability to be realized. These attitudinal changes included key factors such as understanding and appreciating the need for community-led management, promoting economic diversity and self-reliance by increasing small business development, reducing energy usage and developing the practice of recycling waste products, and practicing careful stewardship of natural resources.    

              It is important that tourism stakeholders take the role of gender into account when marketing tourism because the attitudinal responses of males and females to business marketing decisions  may differ. Wang, Bickle, and Harrill’s  (2010) study revealed that male and females have significant differences in respect of tourism beliefs, evaluation of tourism, and the impact of tourism as they related to social and cultural, economic, crowding and congestion, environmental, services, and community attitudes.  

            It is important for tourism planners to be aware of residents’ attitudes when strategizing marketing policies. Having an understanding of attitudes may act as a guide in effective target marketing. Pipinos and Fokiali’s (2009) study focused on the extent to which the residents of Nothern Karpahthos, Greece held favorable attitudes towards ecotourism ventures for sustainable tourism development. The findings which revealed: (a) residents showed a high degree of concern and sensitivity regarding environmental issues, (b) that residents agreed that there was a strong need for environmental education pertaining to ecotourism activities, and (c) residents were favorable to any initiatives that would boost sustainability of ecotourism ventures.                                  The attitudes of tourists towards local culture can also be a determinant of the success of a CBT program. Barac, Dragicevic, and Letunic (2012) examined the attitudes of tourists towards local culture. The findings revealed that the subjects held a negative attitude towards tourism culture. The participants believed that cultural tourism was not fully developed at a stage where it could be offered to the public, and that there was a greater need for development and improvement to improve the program..   

            Residents’  interpersonal relationships may influence attitudes toward a CBT program. Investing in relevant community programs may be a means to influence positive interpersonal relationships between local residents and foster positive community attitudes towards CBT.   Yen, Liu, and Tuan (2009) found that tourism stakeholder planning policies designed to promote harmony among members of the community also assisted in creating positive attitudes towards CBT by promoting loyalty,  satisfaction, trust,  and commitment.  

            The utilization of all means available by tourism planning stakeholders may engender  positive changes in resident attitudes.   Hill, Wallner, and Jose (2010) investigated resident attitudes toward  tourism and climate change.   The study revealed that even though the participants’ attitudes towards tourism were positive and unchanged, they believed that  sustainable tourism could be actualized if all the tourism stakeholders considered implementing technological advances, institutional arrangements, finance availability, and information exchange.  

            Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to voluntary corporate initiatives undertaken  for the benefit of society, and may be a means of effecting positive attitudinal changes in residents. . These initiatives affect the environment and social welfare (Kaeokia,  & Jaikengkit, 2012).  Corporate actions include treating stakeholders with fairness and honesty, caring for the health and wellbeing of customers and all stakeholders, motivating the workforce by offering incentives and promotion opportunities, and respecting the natural environment and resources (Lepoutre & Heene, 2006).  In testing the effectiveness of CSR strategies, Evans and Sawyer (2010) disclosed  that small businesses that engaged in CRS activities received favorable responses and support from the community.

            Developing CBT as a large-scale project will be new to the island of Barbados. The attitudes of Barbadians to this product may be influenced by residents’ prior political and social experiences, and past exposure to tourism.  This supposition is based on the study by Lepps (2008) which was carried out in Bigodi, Uganda. The people of Bigodi had little experience with tourism before the 1990s due to political turmoil that engulfed the region at that time, and were suspicious, anxious, and fearful when the industry was initially established. However, with the passing of time, residents’ attitudes began to improve along with the numbers of tourists coming to the Bigodi.       

            Tourists choose destinations for different reasons, but weather conditions play a major role in deciding where to go. Hot temperatures at home are a factor in helping to decide when and where to take a vacation. Tourists may not be inclined to visit destinations when temperatures are too high. Global warming can, therefore,  play a part in influencing decisions on making trips  (Lohmann, 2009), and may influence resident attitudes by affecting planning procedures.   Maximiliano and Babu (2012) conceded   that studies pertaining to global warming and tourism were conflicting, and at times, inconclusive. They  agreed; however that  there was an inverse relationship between global warming and tourist Winter travel.   Maximiliano and Babu (2012) recommended that rural communities place emphasis on eco tourism in order to minimize the negative effects of global warming on tourists’ travel. This should also have implications in reducing negative attitudes to CBT by providing an alternative form of tourism for residents.       

            The establishment of government policies, public programs, training initiatives may be means to  affect resident attitudes toward tourism, and in particular, CBT. Sijlbing (2010) discussed how the Surinamese government tourism authorities were strategizing to establish  and accelerate growth in their underdeveloped  tourism sector.  Policies planned for future action included: legislative and institutional strengthening of the tourist sector, human resource training and development, execution of intermittent public-awareness programs, increased environmental and quality standard programs, and the establishment of a  code of conduct for all tourism stakeholders.  

            National cost cutting measures and the establishing of economic ventures targeting tourism may influence the attitudes of residents toward tourism. Tourism generates substantial benefits to countries in terms of foreign exchange earnings, job creation, and overall economic development.  Benefits, however, come with a cost, but the exact cost and benefits of tourism are not known (Nicely & Palakurthi, 2012). Nicely and Palakurthi (2012) recommended strategies to monitor costs and earned revenues which included: strengthening local community economic bases by using more local products, minimizing negative socio-cultural and environmental effects of tourism by stakeholder agreement to implement necessary policies and programs, monitoring tourist capacity and spending, and providing local substitute goods where possible. The above strategies should have an impact on local resident attitudes toward the implementation of CBT.

            The government’s allocation of funds to tourism projects may either positively or negatively affect local resident attitudes. Prantic, Petric, and Cetinic (2012) explored the way residents responded to the government’s spending on a tourism project. Some respondents believed that the money allocated to build a new arena could have been spent on areas where there was a greater public need such as healthcare centers and schools; others believed it could have been spent on other projects.  This study highlights that care and consideration are needed by the government when spending on tourism projects because community perceptions and attitudes may vary widely.    

            Negative attitudes toward tourism may emanate from economic recession and a decline in a country’s economic resources. Mbaiwa and Stronza (2011) asserted that negative resident attitudes towards tourism development and conservation in developing countries were related to resource decline. This observation  was also supported  by Sebele (2010). Mbaiwa and Stronza (2011) found that community attitudes towards tourism development and conservation changed from positive to negative when economic benefits from the tourism program were less than costs;  management of the program excluded residents from major roles, and when local community residents did not have part in ownership of the resources.

            The perceptions of residents as they relate to economics, tourist behavior, tourist density and tourism development, and personal benefits, may play a role in shaping resident attitudes toward tourists and tourism. It may be of importance in strategizing for CBT that planning stakeholders to take note in order to shape community attitudes.  Vargas-Sanchez, Porras-Bueno, and Plaza-Mejia’s (2011) concluded that attitudes toward tourism were affected by perceptions relating to: (a) the economic impact of the tourism thrust. Attitudes were positive if the economic outcome were perceived to be economically advantageous, and negative the perception was that there would be no gain, (b) perceptions about tourist behavior. Resident attitudes were positive if the perception was that tourist behavior would be respectful of local customs. Attitudes were negative if the perception was that tourists would be disrespectful, (c)  perception on tourist density. Resident attitudes were negative towards tourists if it was perceived that the volume and attention to tourists would change aspects of community life (culture), (d) perceptions of  personal benefits. Attitudes were  favorable when personal benefits were perceived to be positive and non-favorable when personal benefits were perceived negative or negligible, and (e) level of tourism development. Attitudes were negative if tourism development was deemed too quick.  

            Business management developers who are  trained in systems theory may be better equipped than those who are not systems theorists to make a positive impact on business development (Alder, Forbes, & Willmott, 2007). As result, systems theorists may significantly affect and shape  community attitudes as they relate to tourism.   Strickland-Munroe, Allison, and More (2010) supported Alder, Forbes, and Willmott (2007), and asserted that traditional sustainability assessment methods used to appraise protected area tourism were inadequate and led to faulty conclusions. Systems and resilience thinking that acknowledged uncertainty and change were deemed as alternatives. This involved defining the protected area tourism system, identifying and dealing with factors that affected the system, understanding and adjusting to the culture of the key institutions of the system, and adapting to systems development.  

            Resident attachment and involvement in a community program may be important variables in determining the level of support and type of attitude that will be displayed toward a CBT program.   In 2013, Lee carried out his study to assess resident support for a community tourism  program. The results revealed  that community attachment  and community involvement were the most critical factors that affected resident support for sustainable tourism development.  This information should augur well for tourism planners by implementing programs designed to foster community support.

            The Word Bank (2011) defined social capital as the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape and hold the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions. High social capital build- up may be positively related to community attitudes.  Park, Lee, Choi, and Yoon (2012)   indicated that South Korean farmers who cultivated fruit, vegetable, and rice, and who also operated farm-stay and rural activity businesses for tourists, developed high social capital. It was also observed that government programs that encouraged these types of businesses added to social capital. The building of positive social capital should have a direct relationship on developing positive resident attitudes.  As a means of building resident support for CBT, tourism stakeholders could encourage the building of social capital to as a means to increasing positive resident attitudes.   

            Capital assets accumulation may positively influence resident attitudes. Bennett, Lemelin, Koster, and Budke (2012) recognized that tourism was not an absolute and final means for curing society’s economic shortcomings and that it also fell short in delivering significant social, cultural, and environmental benefits. A framework designed for building tourism capacity by developing seven capital assets was recommended. These assets included: natural, physical, and built, financial, political and institutional, social, cultural, and human capitals. This study may have implications for other study sites in the area of CBT because it may be able to detect which capitals assets should be given priority in developing a CBT program, and by extension, influencing resident attitudes

            There may be a relationship between community attitudes,  residents’ length of time in the community, and perception of inclusion in planning activities.  Stewart, Dawson, and Draper (2011) conducted two community case studies in THE Arctic region of Canada: Cambridge Bay, and Pond Inlet. The studies assessed local residents’ attitudes towards cruise tourism. The results of the research showed that residents’ attitudes toward cruise tourism in Cambridge Bay(where                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              cruise tourism was growing) were passive-to-favorable while in Pond Inlet (where cruise tourism preexisted), were mixed-to-negative.  Implications for this article suggest if residents are to be a part of a tourism program, previous exposure to the program may influence their reception. In addition, the study also implied that residents should be consulted, and their concerns addressed in order to promote positive influence towards the program

            There may be a relationship between local, indigenous crime and the level of tourism development  in a community. As a result, this may affect local attitudes as they relate to tourism.   Park and Stokowski (2009) focused on crime patterns as they related to locations with different levels of tourism development.  The results of the study revealed that sites were various counties in Colorado, USA, which experienced diverse levels of tourism growth. The results of the inquiry revealed that crime rates differed according to tourism growth rates. High tourism growth rate areas  experienced  high crime rates,  and low growth counties experienced lower crime rates. In addition, the following were also observed: (a)  tourism communities seemed to experience more property crime than violent crime, (b) densely populated areas experienced higher crime rates, and  (c) different types of tourism development gave rise to different types of crime. This study has implications for developing and developed tourism locations because it may indicate that as tourism increases, crime patterns increase, negatively affecting resident attitudes toward tourism, and hence, inhibiting tourism growth.

            Residents’ perceptions and attitudes toward tourism may be related to the level of development of the industry, residents’ social status, and general satisfaction with life. Kim, Uysal, and Sirgy’s  (2013) study tested  residents’ perception of tourism impacts (economic, social, cultural and environmental) with residents’ life contentment (as they related to material well-being, community well-being, emotional well-being, health and safety well-being, and overall life satisfaction).  A tourism impact model, which was used for the research, revealed that residents’ perceptions were related to the level of tourism development experienced and that perception of tourism impacts was for the main, positively related to residents’ satisfaction of particular life domains (material well-being, community well-being, emotional well-being, health and safety well-being, and overall life satisfaction).  An implication of this study suggests that in shaping tourism policy, planners should take the level of tourism development into account as well as the level of resident contentment. The level of contentment could affect resident attitudes either positively or negatively. 

            It is possible that even though residents may hold positive feelings toward tourism, there could be simultaneous discontent and negative attitudes regarded against the industry if the participants are not included in planning processes.  Zamani-Farahani and Musa’s (2008) inquiry revealed that the majority of residents were in favor of tourism but also held negative feelings because they were not included when the program was being planned, and a perception that marketing funds were not properly spent.  This study is of importance to locations that are in the process of tourism development because it exposes underlying possibilities of resident discontent and negative perceptions that could be engendered, thereby, negatively affecting the establishing of the tourism program.    

            Location of residents and their social status may be a determining factor of a person’s attitude towards tourism development.  The research of Frauman and Banks (2011) evaluated the environmental, cultural, and economic perceptions of gateway community residents to tourism development. It was discovered that persons were more concerned about the environmental impact of tourism to the community than economic or cultural activities. The results of this study may suggest that in devising tourism strategies for residents, tourism planners may have to devise different programs according to class background. It may be important for  government and tourism stakeholders to understand the impact of past  tourism development on community residents in order to avoid any possible future, potential negative community responses and fallout against tourists and by extension, tourism development.  Tourism development may, therefore, have a positive or negative effect on community attitudes. This could have implications for CBT.

While admitting that research on the social impact of tourism development on communities was substantial and continuing, Deery, Jago, and Fredline (2012) asserted that most of the present social impact studies of tourism discussed  what happened, but did  not explain why it happened.  In addition, with respect to social impact studies, the literature examined four stages of research development: definitions, conceptual frameworks used, instrument development, and instrument testing. Deery et al. (2012) suggested that there were gaps in the literature in respect of resident attitudes to tourism in areas such as personal characteristics of the length of time residents lived in the area, residents’ dependence on tourism and the distance lived away from the main areas of activity, resident values, political preferences, and attachment to the region. 

            Responsible tourism management (RTM) refers to tourism business practices that are designed to improve the quality of life and maintain cultural practices within a tourism location (Frey & George, 2010). Due to its powers of influence, it may be possible that  RTM policies can  affect resident attitudes and business attitudes towards the establishment of a tourism program. According to Frey and George (2010), climate change, diminishing natural resources, and economic uncertainty caused businesses in South Africa to  evaluate their impact on the natural, social, and economic environments. This has given rise to an increase in demand for socially, environmentally, and economically responsible products, thereby influencing business and resident attitudes.  However,  Frey and George (2010) also discovered that although businesses were favorable towards RTM, they limited their investments due to a number of factors: perceived high costs of implementing RTM practices, highly competitive business environment, and perceived a perceived lack of government support. This study is of importance to tourism and CBT development because it described how business management actions can shape attitudes.

            Perceptions of tourism’s impact may be a factor that affects community attitudes.  Byrd, Bosley, and Dronberger’s (2009) inquiry was conducted in Eastern, North Carolina. The purpose was to assess if there were differences in the perception of  tourism’s impact on the community by four stakeholder groups: residents, entrepreneurs, government officials, and tourists.  The results indicated that there were differences in the perception of tourism’s impact on the community among the four stakeholder groups and that there was a need for greater communication to avoid misunderstandings. Differences in the perceptions of tourism’s societal impact may be a factor that relates to resident responses and attitudes. This may have implications for a proposed CBT program because residents responses’ may be related to how they perceive they  will be affected by CBT implementation.     

Tourism and Expectations

Definition of Expectation

            Expectation is the anticipation of expecting something to be received or to occur (Oxford English Dictionary, 2013).  Higgins (2013) declared that human beings form expectations based on experience, the environment, and the rational need to unravel how these phenomena will affect life.  This section will examine what residents expect of tourism initiated programs.

Tourism and Expectations

            Although public and private tourism entities may share a common bond in their mutual objective of pursuing sustainable tourism, their methods of achieving this goal may differ; hence, stakeholders’ expectations of a tourism program may not be the homogenous.. Dudensing, Huges, and Shields (2011) found that various tourism stakeholders pursued marketing goals  differently;  giving rise to heterogeneous  levels of expectations that resulted  in  conflict among varying groups. In developing a CBT program, there may be a need for marketing plans to have a central body that ensures all plans are sequenced and strategized in an orderly manner.          

            Assessment of expected success or failure of a tourism program may not always be predicted with accuracy.  Spencer and Nsiah’s (2013) research examined cultural tourism’s net effects in a study that involved the reestablishment of a once-closed historical attraction that was remodeled and restarted for tourism development. Some residents expected the venture to fail while others thought it would succeed. The refurbishment was achieved and the project, successful. An implication for tourism planners is that expectations may or may not always be realized, and establishing a program requires all participants to work together to give the venture a chance to succeed.     

            Expected conflict between heterogeneous tourism stakeholders with different cultural backgrounds may be diffused by allowing representatives of each group to  take  part in planning processes.  In 1999, Jamison and  Wood (as cited in Yang & Wall,2009), observed tensions among different groups of residents involved in a tourism program.  In catering to resident expectations, it was suggested that tourism policy makers used the cultural peculiarities of their countries’ ethnic population to promote ethnic tourism. Tensions were erased, however, when representative stakeholders from all resident groups took part in strategy planning.       

           Positive expectations of a tourism program may not necessarily be actualized in practice.   The perception that a community-based natural resource management (CBNRM)  program provided  mainly positive  results for local residents and communities was challenged by Sebele (2010). Tourism stakeholders expected that CBNRM would provide benefits such as   employment generation, local infrastructural and tourism development,  increased trade  of local goods, and small business development.   Sebele (2010) discovered  a number of  operational shortcomings of the CBNRM program: low employment generation, loss of natural resources, generation of poor management skills, lack of community involvement in strategy planning,  perception of  non-ownership of the program or resources, and development of low self-esteem in having to rely on donor funding for the program’s existence. Hence, due to factors foreseen or unforeseen,  projections of a community-based tourism program may not always be realized. Tourism planners may need to be cautious when making projections  and have alternative plans in the event projections are not realized.

            In establishing a CBT program, positive expectations of  residents may be influenced by local residents’ assessment of the  effectiveness of prior policy planning and programs initiated by planning stakeholders.  Buultjens and Gale (2013) discovered that  the Australian Government’s plan to promote sustainable tourism among aboriginals bore  high expectations among the public.  Positive expectations were short-lived; the program failed due to a departure from initial plans, which arose because of unforeseen problems: mentors attached to the program were not able to allocate the required time due to  external  business commitments; program duration was limited, and  a crucial mistake was made in not consulting key  persons prior to the initiation of the program. . This study identified that sticking to original plans may be a means of shaping positive expectations of  all the stakeholders involved.

            Established cultural norms and religious values may be variables that  affect  how residents  view,  and what they expect in a  tourism program. These values and norms may also have far-reaching consequences by affecting  residents’ willingness to support the tourism initiative.  Shakeela and Weaver’s (2012) study was based on the reaction of residents to an incident that occurred at an Islamic wedding  which was held at  a Maldivian resort,  and which veered from Islamic traditions.. It was found that while the residents were supportive of tourism – its economic benefits and its potential to spread its views to a broader, cultural base of persons – they were upset at what transpired during the wedding because it veered from Islamic tradition. The participants expected that there would have been no shift from Islamic tenets and were disappointed when the change occurred.  Tourism stakeholders, therefore, may need  to act carefully in dealing with religious and cultural matters when setting-up a CBT initiative because participants may have peculiar expectations of how the program should function.

            Stakeholders’ expectations of a tourism event may be influenced by the media, personal experiences, and external sources. The Australian event, Schoolies Week, is an end- of –year high school ceremony, where school leavers converge on resorts and other night areas, to engage in seven days’ drinking and partying festivities (Weaver & Lawton, 2013). Weaver and Lawton (2013) examined the responses of adults in regard to  their support for Schoolies Week. The responses to support were mixed: conditional supporters – 33%; conditional opponents – 34%; opponents  – 18%,  and supporters – 15%.  Conditional supporters and opponents were influenced their assessment of costs and benefits. Opponents were influenced by the media, personal negative experiences, and responses from social circles. Supporters were influenced by their children’s and their own personal Schoolie experiences. Weaver and Lawton (2013) showed that resident expectations may be influenced by factors such as costs and benefits, the media, personal experiences, group and family interrelationships. Hence, in  respect of a tourism program such as CBT, resident support for an  initiative may be influenced by expected costs, benefits, media promotions, group and family interrelationships, and personal experiences.

            Tourism planning stakeholders may have an advantage in strategy planning if they know the characteristics of different types of residents involved in a CBT program. In their study that was carried out in Tiantangzhai, China, Han, Ta-Fang, and  Wen-Huang (2011) discovered 4 types of residents: naïve, community, economy led, cautious, and pessimistic. Each group had different levels of tourism expectations. Hence, having an understanding of the  human  personality traits, and in particular, community attitudes, should enable planning stakeholders to  better strategize because they should  be poised  to preempt what to expect of persons, having prior knowledge of resident behavioral patterns… It may be, therefore, in the interest of planning stakeholders to devise  a strategy of collecting trait data on the resident population to assess expectations.  Social exchange theory may be used in a CBT program as a means of predicting resident expectations.  Crossman (n.d.) described social exchange theory as society’s series of exchanges among persons that are based on perceived punishments and rewards. This view suggests that  social interactions and relationships are determined and  based on estimates of  what the cost will be,  and  the perceived, expected benefits. Nunkoo and Ramkissoon’s (2011) study focused on community tourism support as it related to social exchange theory. A 14-hypothesized model was developed to test the relationship of community support for tourism, based on social exchange theory. The results of the inquiry revealed that support for tourism was a function of perceived benefits,  perceived costs, and community satisfaction. In addition, perceived benefits were shown to related to community satisfaction, institutional trust, power to influence tourism, planning and neighborhood conditions. The results of Nunkoo and Ramkissoon’s (2011) study should be helpful in predicting residents’ expectations, for if resident attitudes are based on perceived rewards and punishments, tourism planners may be able to introduce systems of rewards to raise community expectations and influence positive commitment to the program.

            Decision-makers may be able to mould and influence  positive community expectations toward a tourism program by the use of  applied management techniques. Spencer (2010) examined techniques that were designed and used to mould positive participant expectations, which included: recruitment of participants who were managed by members of the participant group, holding workshops on days convenient to the participants, showing respect for the culture and views of the group, and setting up  a business venture (casino gambling) that created jobs for the community. The ability to influence resident expectations should be beneficial to tourism planners because if it is matched with acceptable rewards, it may be a means of promoting resident solidarity with the program.        

            Social identity theory describes a person’s definition of self-worth based on membership of a particular group (McLeod, 2008). Crossman (n.d.) asserted that social exchange theory denoted how people socially interacted as they based their reactions on perceived rewards and punishments. Management theorists who understand how to engage  social identity theory and social exchange theory may be able to utilize aspects of the tenets of both theories  to influence respondent expectations.  Nunkoo and Gursoy (2012)  tested  community support for tourism based on social identity  and social exchange theories and found that both theories supported the assertion of influence and expectations.  The results revealed that participants were concerned about the group to which they were aligned and placed  their perception of self-actualization in their preferred group. It was also noted that perceived rewards were instrumental in the choosing of a group. The results of Nunkoo and Gursoy’s  (2012) study should hold interest to CBT planners because they imply that care should be taken when setting up community groups, and that there may be a relationship between respondents’ expectations and the utilization of particular aspects  of social and exchange theories.             

            Tourism planners may need the assistance of the community to effect a successful program.  If residents do not support a CBT program, it may be unlikely that the program will succeed. . If community members do not envisage benefits, or if they perceive problems with the program, it is likely that they will offer total support (Presenza, Del Chiappa, & Sheehan, 2013). In marketing a CBT program, tourism planners may be advantaged if they can positively influence resident expectations and bring them to fruition.    Presenza, Del Chiappa, and Sheehan (2013) explored the attitudes and expectations of residents and designed policies to promote residents’ engagement in maturing tourism destinations. The results identified four classes of residents representing four different interests in tourism: “activists”, “disenchanted”, “opposers”, and “favorers, which  represented various groups of residents, according to the level of support offered. Being able to identify classes of participants should enable CBT planners to be more effective in planning because they should be able to implement strategies to cater to various levels of expectations.

            It is possible that if community needs are known in advance and acted upon, the introduction of a community tourism program may be implemented with less start-up problems, giving rise to  positive resident  expectations.  Cejas (2006) defined slum tourism (as cited in Mekawy, 2012) as tourism that was strategically centered in impoverished locations.    Mekawy (2012) stated that slum tourism was a means of eradicating poverty. He divided his study into  two  sections: (a)   participants’ perceptions of slum tourism and (b) identification of   appropriate pro-poor products that participants preferred. The first survey showed positive responses towards slum tourism. The second  part of the program revealed that residents were concerned that not enough was being done by the government in developing  pro poor products, and if rectified, participants would have been fully behind the program. Mekawy’s (2012) study showed that CBT planners may be advantaged in conjuring community support and expectations if they focus on products and services that residents perceive as being beneficial.

            Residents’ expectations toward  tourism development may be misplaced if planning efforts are not focused correctly.  A general agreement by all stakeholders on how tourism should be developed may promote confidence and positive expectations among community residents.  Selby, Petajisto, and Huhtala (2011) contended that tourism decision- makers’ resource availability, attitudes, and consensus agreed development preferences raised the confidence and expectations of the tourism program’s participants. The study also revealed that that entrepreneurial decision-makers fell into four distinct groups: adapters (aggressive and focused marketing); adopters (flexible business marketing); informed satisficer (nonchalant, dispassionate business marketing) influenced by lifestyle aspirations rather than business development), and satisficers (laxed business marketing) concerned with satisfying the minimum requirement to achieve results). In influencing community residents, It may be important for tourism planners to identify the existing types of tourism entrepreneurs to effect consensus decision-making that should positively influence resident expectations.

            Residents’ perception of tourism’s impact may be indicators of their  expectations of tourist arrivals and the strength of the tourism industry. Diedrich and Garicia-Buades’ (2009) study  explored the role of resident perceptions of tourism impacts as indicators of tourism decline. Butler’s (1980) study (as cited in Diedrich & Garicia-Buades, 2009) affirmed that tourism impacts increased as tourism increased and that, in the tourism industry’s cycle, final stage negative impacts will be greater than positive impacts because residents perceive and expect tourism interactions to be negative. Hence, tourism arrivals were expected to decline over a period of time. Diedrich et al.  (2009) supported Butler’s (1980) study and added that, over a period of time, residents expect  that tourism  would distort and weaken local culture and the environment. Hence, if the community’s reactions to tourism are negative, it may be an indication that residents do not expect that the present stage of tourism can add value to society.  CBT planners may, therefore, need to take note of the community’s expectations of the industry to assist in the implementation of CBT.      

            Studies that identify purchase traits of tourists from different class backgrounds and different age ranges  may shape and benefit local tourism business expectations in deciding on which goods and services to produce for various categories of tourists.  Tangeland, Vennesland, and Nybakk (2013) discovered that tourists were fond of  three types of nature-based products: learning, adventure, and hunting products  and that these were dependent on educational, age, and income levels. It was further revealed that the second-home owner tourists that purchased nature-based tourism products were young, upper-income and mobile, and risk takers. The ability to identify different categories of tourists may be a means of increasing tourism goods output and heighten expectations for future business.  

            Conflict generated by one group (A), against another group (B),  may  give rise to a unifying force among group members of the opposing group (B). Being aware of this possibility should enable tourism policymakers to understand what to expect between conflicting groups and to diffuse tensions by taking necessary corrective actions.. Yang, Ryan, and Zhang (2013) used Coser’s (1956) theory on social conflict to evaluate how conflict unifies a social group. Coser (1956) argued that conflict between two or more groups may act as a solidifier of relationships among members of a particular group (as cited in Yang et al., 2013). Yang et al. (2013) stated that actions carried out by government officials were interpreted as negative by local residents and acted as a means of unifying relationships within a social group. This information should be useful for tourism policymakers because it may be a means of predicting what could happen should altercations arise between two groups.

            Tourism planners should be mindful that tourism development may  give rise to an increase in growth of negative industry characteristics, which if not contained, could  create austere problems for the industry. Simpson (2008) stated that tourism development was an oxymoron because, it was supposed to strengthen economies, create jobs and improve the general standard of living; yet, in another breath,  studies revealed it to be an invader and destroyer of cultures, and an underminer of social progress and economic development.  Simpson (2008) examined community benefit tourism initiatives (CBTIs) and  identified characteristics of key tourism  stakeholders (government, the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and communities) that could contribute to long-term sustainable tourism development and avoid negative fallout in the industry. The following were recommended: reassessment of tourism related government department structures to promote the implementation of  awareness programs and dialog between  all stakeholders; increasing private sector involvement in all aspects of tourism development; full utilization of NGOs for the procurement of  loans, grants, and   infrastructural development, and increased communication between all stakeholder groups to prevent the potential of  negative developments in the industry.  In understanding and expecting that negative developments could take place with tourism development, this study should be helpful in counteracting possible situations and making provision for such eventualities.       

            Knowing the age range, gender, location, and social interactivity of community residents may be a determinant of assessing what to expect from various sections of a tourism community, and their potential contribution to a CBT program.  Pulina, Meleddu, and Chiappa’s  (2013) study identified  factors that influenced residents’ choice for a particular type of tourism, and discovered that residents preferred leisure, cruise, sport and cultural tourism. However, the results also revealed that  persons between the ages of 18 and 25 did not appreciate cultural tourism, but  preferred cruise, sport, and leisure tourism; women preferred cultural tourism; persons who interacted daily with tourists preferred cruise, sport, and cultural tourism; persons who lived far from the port were not interested in any type of tourism. The results of this study should be helpful because it revealed that expectations of residents may be a function of dynamics such as gender, age, and location setting.       

            Public trust in the government and tourism structures may be a predictor of the public’s support for proposed tourism ventures.  On the contrary, if the public does not have much regard or trust in tourism decision-makers, it may be an indication that they may not support tourism initiatives. This knowledge should  assist tourism planners when deciding strategy offenses.      Nunkoo, Ramkissoon, and Gursoy(2012) tested public confidence in the political and tourist structures of tourism. The study’s outcome showed that perceived economic and political performance of tourism institutions, the power of residents in tourism matters, and interpersonal trust were  related to trust in tourism institutions. Political support for tourism ventures was also shown to be related to public trust in the institutions. This study confirms  Wong, Wan, and Hsiao’s 2011 assertion that positive resident expectations in political and tourism structures may be related and moulded when the economic performance of tourism matters is perceived positive, and when there is decentralization of tourism management to include local residents. Based on the outcome of Nunkoo, Ramkissoon, and Gursoy(2012), tourism planners should be able to expect public support when there is full public confidence in governmental  and tourism structures. Hence, it may be necessary for tourism planners to  engage in public relations efforts when seeking support for new tourism ventures.

Newly developed, and small tourism businesses may need much assistance and support to develop sustainability. Tourism small business sustainability may, therefore, be a means of  developing  positive expectations among local residents. Carlisle, Kunc, Jones, and Tiffin (2013) discovered that, in lesser-developed tourism locations, small tourism businesses needed the support of all tourism stakeholders in order to develop sustainability. The results of the study revealed that there was limited access of locals to tourists and marketing venues; poor infrastructural telecommunications and other network development communications, and need for small tourism business financing to support small tourism businesses. Overall, Carlisle et al. (2013) saw the need for a professionally operated tourism industry where all stakeholders worked together with special emphasis being given to the development and sustainability of small tourism business operations. Local residents’ anticipation of sustained tourism development, therefore,   may give rise to positive expectations of future development of the industry.

            An increase in tourist numbers may not necessarily result in economic growth. This is important because it should help tourism planners and the government revenue collection agencies not to  inflate expected foreign exchange inflows, when projecting tourism earnings.   Matarrita-Cascante (2010) revealed that, despite tourism growth in Liberia and La Fortuna, Costa Rica, these locations experienced problems such as underdevelopment of small tourism businesses, disequilibrium in the downward flow of income, mainly minimum-wage job creation, prostitution, and related social problems. Tourism planners may, at times, need to devise separate economic growth strategies, when tourist arrivals increase, but respective revenues from tourism  fall.   

            Residents exposed to a new tourism program may develop a change in disposition  to the mode of tourism. This may have implications for a new CBT program because it suggests that implementation of a new tourism program could boost expectations and act as a motivator among community residents.  The 2011 study carried out by Nyaupane and Poudel  explored the relationships that existed among biodiversity conservation and improvement of general livelihoods and tourism development.  The biodiversified tourism product was found to change peoples’ lives and alter existing perceptions and expectations  of tourism.   

            Tourism planners should be aware that resistance and anger could emanate from a change in tourism  occupational roles. Hence, even though a conceptualized tourism program may be perceived as being for the general good of all, there may be dissenters and those who are not in agreement with its establishing  the program.. This may have implications for resident expectations  of a tourism program.  In 2012, Di Domenico and Miller discovered that some farmers, who, because of economic reasons were forced to diversify from farming to tourism, were resentful and did not appreciate the change of roles. Tourism officials should be mindful and take note when making plans for  community resident occupational role changes  that not everyone will be in agreement, and that some persons may have negative expectations of the proposed development.  Hence, provision should be made (wherever possible) for those residents who do not agree with the program; who expect that the program will not positively affect the community. 

            Attitudes toward preferred scale-development of tourism may be a strong indication of residents’ expectations and receptiveness of the program’s strength, and/ or limitations. Yankholmes (2013) stated that a good indication of residents’ expectations of a tourism program would be their opinion on the preferred level of development that they would like to see in a community. Accordingly, if the preference were  large-scale, one could expect that there would be a high probability that  expectations would be positive. On the other hand, a small-scale preference would denote the possibility of negative expectations toward tourism development  

            A functioning CBT program does not necessarily need to include management and input resource only from community members. The utilization of persons and resources outside the community may also strengthen the program. Iorio and Wall (2012) challenged the traditional view that expected management of a CBT program to be administered by local residents only.. Their  study revealed that local residents could not optimize resources or fully develop community-tourism by themselves and that help was needed from  expatriate locals(residents  who were born outside of the country). Practicing expatriate inclusion form the initial phase of a program may diffuse the potential of negative expectations and conflict.

            Before a CBT initiative  is started, planners should be aware that educational awareness programs may be able to change negative or preconceived beliefs and expectations of a  CBT program that may be held by residents. Awareness programs may have the potential to heighten residents’ awareness and expectations. Chen (2011) found that an ecolabeling program designed to protect sea mammals and test the quality assurance of dolphin and whale watching had a positive effect on tour operators, visitors, and locals. The establishment of the educational exercise influenced participants’ expectations and allowed planning stakeholders to make informed decisions.     

Different categories  of personality types of tourists visit destinations.    Having detailed information on tourists’ characteristics  should enable tourism marketers to optimize target marketing strategies by knowing what to expect  by having  knowledge of tourists’ preferences. Kask, Kline, and Lamoueux (2009) described the SAVE tourist market as a niche market composed of the following types of tourists: (a) Scientific. Persons or groups who traveled, with the specific aim,  of carrying out scientific research; (b) Academic. Persons or groups who traveled, with the intent, to   take part in their specialty of academic interest; (c) Volunteer. Persons or groups who traveled to make a positive contribution to society; and (d) Educational. Persons or groups, who traveled, to obtain educational satisfaction and not necessarily to complete exams.   Kasket al.(2009) examined the characteristics of persons who made up the SAVE tourist market. The results revealed that investing in SAVE was less costly than with traditional tourists because the characteristics of the tourists were known and could, therefore, be pre-assessed for marketing purposes.

            Having general knowledge of residents’ concerns as they relate to local, social and economic issues should assist tourism planners on the type of tourism program to be installed that would   influence community perceptions and expectations.   Cottrell, Vaske, and Roemer (2013) affirmed this assertion when they examined four community concerns (environmental, economic, socio-cultural, and institutional), and their impact on residents’ satisfaction with sustainable tourism.  The participants were found to favor mostly economic progress as the major predictive factor of satisfaction, followed by institutional, social, and environmental variables.

Tourism and Culture

Definition of Culture

            Culture is a shared pattern of beliefs and behaviors that are learned and practiced over time through group socialization(University of Minnesota, 2013).

Tourism and Culture

Understanding and respecting home-group cultural peculiarities may assist tourism planners  in establishing a CBT program without major opposition from community members.  Ghaderi and Henderson (2012) found that residents  were favorable toward  tourism and the economic benefits that accrued, but were not in favor of perceived cultural changes that might have occurred.

 Tourists  having an understanding the culture of the host country may assist in the development of  medical tourism.  In his study of 2013, Connell asserted that there was no standard definition of medical tourism and that the term was generally used to caption overseas travel for medical procedures and treatments rather than specific travel for health and wellness. Connell’s (2013) stated that medical/health tourism was positioned to contribute to a larger share  of the  global tourism market and that a form of reverse globalization was occurring where tourists from developed countries were travelling to lesser developed economies for medical treatment.. Due to the outflow of tourists to developing and underdeveloped countries, culture played an important role. According to Connell (2013), perceptions of the host’s culture by medical tourists could be influential in their selection  of a particular country, and  tourists would be more inclined to visit destinations where they held positive perceptions, and less inclined to go to  travel to countries where their  perceptions of the destination’ s culture were negative.

            A threat to a destination’s cultural roots may be the development of urbanization. The coexistence of urbanization and cultural heritage, however, may create a stronger tourism market. Penang, China, which was awarded the title of Heritage City by UNESCO in 2008, began to lose its individual identity (Chai, 2011).  Chai (2011) explored and identified ways in which Penang (in the face of urbanization) maintained its cultural heritage. This study revealed that urbanization and maintenance of cultural heritage could coexist, provided local stakeholders exerted deliberate efforts to maintain cultural roots. 

            Understanding the cultural traits of different classes of income-earning tourists may be beneficial to CBT planners  because they may be to assess peculiarities and cater to specific attributes. Salazar and Zhang (2013) discovered that while there were trait similarities among tourists, there were also differences between  heterogeneous   class groups.  Upper-income Chinese tourists were not given to night club revelry, and interaction with local residents was not a priority. They preferred rural settings with natural sceneries in remote locations. This contrasted with lower-income Chinese tourists, who preferred urbanization, fast-paced living and night club attendance.

            Jenkins (2004) stated that  globalization was increased world integration brought about by the universal exchange of goods and services that  weakened the ability of small countries to trade..  Mak, Lumbers, and   Eves (2012) disagreed with Jenkin’ (2004) assertion  and postulated that rather than a threat, globalization offered locations increased cultural, culinary business.  Torres (2002) supported  Mak et al (2012),  and asserted that globalization offered the average citizen exposure to varieties of local food alternatives, thereby opening-up opportunities for increased and global, cultural  business. Mak et al (2012) saw globalization  as a means to  spread local culture through food.  This study shows that a relationship may exist between a society’s culinary culture and tourism. Culinary culture  may, therefore, be used as a means of attracting tourists. Alternatively, it may also be a means of discouraging tourists who may dislike aspects of local dishes.  

            Ingrained cultural traits within a community may inhibit tourism growth and pose limitations in strengthening a CBT program. Rural tourism (RT)  has been an important form of tourism in China for many years; it has developed  into six different models (Su, 2011).  Zheng and Zong (2004) and He (2005) identified these models (as cited in Su, 2011) as household-run small business (business run by an individual family household); individual-run farmstead (run by an individual farmer); farmer family plus family farmer (one family per RT business; corporation plus farmers (a corporation assists farmers); corporation, plus community plus farmers (corporation helps the community, plus farmers; and the government plus corporation plus farmers. Su (2011) stated that the models worked well and made tangible contributions to the communities, but developed challenges:: limited management skills, difficulties   in management transitioning  from one type of RT to another, and a lack of  the government’s support. RT should be beneficial to community-based tourism as it could help to diversify and maximize the agricultural sector’s capacity; however, culture should also play a part in restricting RT’s potential if residents are accustomed to carrying out functions in a particular manner. The inability or difficulty to change due to cultural traits was supported by Gwee (2008). 

            Increased tourism earnings could lead to a shift in traditional, cultural and ethnic values. Ethnic tourism was defined by Van den Berghe (1994) as travel to locations to experience the life of other ethnicities (as cited in Ishii, 2012). Ishii (2012) found that when compared to older members, income was higher for younger people and that cultural disruptions occurred in the community that was initially bonded and shepherded by traditional patriarchal leadership. Tourism stakeholders should take note that when tourism expands, there is the possibility that certain indigenous cultural traits may be replaced with contemporary mannerisms.   

            Residents may unconsciously work against positive benefits of CBT due to established cultural habits and thereby, inhibit the development of related enterprises that could bring sustained growth. Sharma and Dyer (2009) acknowledged that tourism brought significant benefits to sustainable economic development of societies. This was attributed to increase of foreign exchange, business start-ups, and conclusive infrastructural development. Tao and Wall (2009) agreed that while tourism played a part in economic progress, it was not the only sector that brought sustainable development.  It was mooted that economic planners should devise a sustainable livelihood approach to development which involved planning for the creation of tourism-related businesses.  Tao and Wall (2009) conceded that while the concept was worthwhile, challenges could arise where cultural habits resisted the need for a change of employment or business status as found in their study on aboriginal people from a village in Taiwan where tourism was being developed. Due to cultural dispositions, men from the village worked away from the community while the women worked at home. This study underscored the need for the establishment of educational strategies and reward systems that would  encourage local residents to develop businesses within the community that complement and add to the tourism project.

            Creative tourism is described as tourism that promotes the interaction of tourists with residents with the intent to teach tourists arts and skills, and to  partake in cultural experiences. These actions are carried out with  the hope that tourists would repeat their experiences in the future (Richards, 2011).  There may be a positive relationship between creative tourism and CBT. Campbell (2011) narrated that government advanced and  promoted creative tourism by developing creative cities, creative industries, and creative classes of persons. Richard’s (2011) study advanced an addition to cultural/heritage tourism with  creative tourism. Creative tourism may, therefore, be used as a cultural effort to improve tourism, and in particular, CBT. 

            The research literature contains much information on the benefits of cultural tourism; however, if not addressed from inception, cultural differences between tourism stakeholders could lead to conflict and weakening of a CBT program. Lee, Riley, and Hampton (2011) analyzed tourism stakeholder relationships in the building of a cultural heritage site in South Korea. According to Lee et al. (2011), strained relationships developed among the various stakeholders due to cultural differences, which gave rise to manipulation, political interference, and mistrust. Lee et al. (2011) asserted that there was a need for collaborative stakeholder strategy planning,  and the need for stakeholders respect cultural differences as a means of promoting successful CBT.

            Learning the distinctive cultural habits of tourists and befriending tourism planning stakeholders of the tourists’ country of origin may assist in building a CBT program. Ning and Hoon (2011) stated that globalization created a competitive environment in the global tourism industry that made it necessary for nations to become more artful and adept in their marketing strategies. These strategies could include (a) promoting the learning of the tourists’ culture, (b) advocating scientific marketing of tourism, and  (c) forging marketing relationships with the tourism marketing stakeholders from the tourists’ countries of origin.    

            Tourism planning officials may be able to use aspects of societal culture to reinforce values that they may want   to perpetuate to society. Smith (1977) defined ethnic tourism (as cited in Yang, 2011) as tourism that features the peculiar customs of the host nations. Yang (2011) asserted that not much research was done on how indigenous minority cultures were viewed by tourism stakeholders, and hence, carried out his study to determine how minority ethnic cultures were perceived by four tourism stakeholders: governments, park managers, employees, and tourists. The results of the four groups were varied, but  revealed that responses were influenced by the state’s approach to perpetuating cultural harmony. It was discovered that the state used cultural hegemony – aspects of minority culture to forge values it wanted to inculcate (Creswell, 1996). Yang’s (2011) study revealed  how tourism planning officials may be able to develop ethnic tourism by promoting and reinforcing  aspects of minority cultures among tourism stakeholders. If strategized properly, minority cultures may be able to be used as a means of strengthening CBT.  

            Cultural heritage tourism refers to tourist travel that focuses on experiencing the historical, cultural, and natural accounts of others. This form of tourism is popular and accounts for a large international percentage of global tourism (Graham & Howard, 2008). Dark tourism refers to a specialist type of cultural heritage tourism, where tourists visit destinations based on historical atrocities that were carried out in the past (Kidron, 2011). Dark tourism may be a means of expanding CBT and Cultural tourism. Kidron (2011) asserted the need to promote dark tourism and carried out an ethnographic study on 55 Israeli Holocaust descendants who visited heritage and Holocaust sites and recalled their lived experiences. The results showed that the experiences were emotional, and a bond was forged between participants due to their common familial experiences.   This study may have implications for former slave colonies like Barbados because It may be possible to integrate dark tourism with CBT.  

There may be a need to ensure that community residents are involved in decision-making as it relates to CBT and cultural tourism to ensure that matters affecting the industry are addressed by those who are intimately involved.  The literature is replete with studies of cultural tourism:  it benefits, potential to enfranchise working class residents economically, and its positive contribution to society.  One objective of cultural tourism is to create   a cadre of resident-based managers (Nielsen & Wilson, 2012); however, Nielsen and Wilson (2012) questioned whether cultural tourism decisions were being made by indigenous residents and if they (the residents) really were in control of the industry. Nielsen and Wilson (2012) contended that residents – small stakeholders – were the ones who were seen working in the industry, but there were other stakeholders – larger and unseen – who were really in control.  As a result, there was a need to enfranchise local, indigenous workers to play a larger and more meaningful role in the development of cultural tourism because these persons may be able to make relevant, necessary decisions due to their intimate knowledge  and involvement in the industry.

            Sports tourism is a widely used form of tourism that is used to attract tourists. It draws  participants and followers and provides exposure for the particular tourist area. If well coordinated, it can develop and boost a community’s economic infrastructure. Sports tourism may be used  to strengthen a CBT program where the area is known for its specialty in a particular sport. (Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003). Mason and Duquette (2008) took the concept of sports tourism a little further to include cultural tourism. They suggested that selling sports franchises could be a means of developing sports and culture. Based on the results of  Mason and Duquette (2008), It may be  possible  that inclusion of  sports tourism in a CBT program may be a means of  strengthening the initiative..

            Food is an important part of living because an individual will die if,  over a period of time,  he or she does not ingest food.  Peoples’ tastes differ; all people do not like the same types of food or drink. Consequently, food may be able to play an important part in tourism marketing and the development of CBT.  Aslimoski and Gerasimoski (2012) discovered a number advantages that could accrue through food tourism: (a) all-year supply of food for tourists. This could create the development of  a niche food industry and  other related industries, (b) development of a wider variety of foods for supply to tourists, (c) expansion of other forms of tourism such as wine and cultural tourism, and (d) increase in employment levels. The strategy of using  food as a means of boosting CBT may have merit. Barbados could specialize in certain foods that target particular types of tourists, but the strategy would have to be planned properly.

            Not having knowledge  Food is an important part of living because an individual will die if,  over a period of time,  he or she does not ingest food.  Peoples’ tastes differ; all people do not like the same types of food or drink. Consequently, food may be able to play an important part in tourism marketing and the development of CBT.  Aslimoski and Gerasimoski (2012) discovered a number advantages that could accrue through food tourism: (a) all-year supply of food for tourists. This could create the development of  a niche food industry and  other related industries, (b) development of a wider variety of foods for supply to tourists, (c) expansion of other forms of tourism such as wine and cultural tourism, and (d) increase in employment levels. The strategy of using  food as a means of boosting CBT may have merit. Barbados could specialize in certain foods that target particular types of tourists, but the strategy would have to be planned properly.

Not having knowledge of aspects of another country’s culture can prove detrimental to international businesses. This is especially crucial for the tourism industry which seeks to attract persons from other locations. Having an understanding of the cultures of others should make marketing efforts easier because peculiarities of the target market would be known.  Wei (2012)  examined China’s weakened tourism industry and recommended cross- cultural marketing strategies as a means of  resuscitation. Wei (2012) defined cross-cultural marketing as strategies used to learn the culture of other countries to initiate marketing efforts.  In order to be successful in cross-cultural marketing, marketers needed to be aware of (a) the cultural background of  tourists and their cross-cultural-marketing agencies and (b) the need to instill cross-cultural awareness in employees. Cross-cultural marketing; however has shortcomings and difficulties: communication barriers, cultural conflicts, and cultural differences (Wei, 2012). Wei’s(2012) research showed that cross-cultural marketing may be a boost for CBT.       

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory offers insights into societal cultural differences and may  be able to be used as an instrument for marketing CBT. Kang and Mastin (2008) outlined six assertions  of Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions: power distance (PDI) – the degree and the way how a society handles social  inequalities; Individualism versus collectivism (IDV) – the degree to which a society prefers the practice of  individual independence or familial/group sharing of responsibilities; masculinity versus femininity (MAS) – the extent to which a society practices achievement and rewards, or consensus agreement in carrying out decisions; uncertainty avoidance (UAI) – the degree to which members of society view and handle uncertainty and ambiguity; long-term versus short-term orientation (LTO) – the way how a society handles and interprets value systems; and Indulgence versus restraint (IVR) – the  degree to which a society practices self- indulgence and collective retraining of desires and indulgences.  Hofstede’s theory gives insight into how cultures differ among themselves.  This may allow tourism planners to distinguish idiosyncrasies among varying cultures within a CBT locale, and cultural differences among tourists from different locations.  Having prior knowledge of cultural differences should make planning easier for tourism policymakers because they should be able to formulate plans with an understading of varying cultural acceptances.

            An increase in the number of tourists at any given time does not necessarily mean that the increase will be sustained over any projected period, or that an instituted tourism program will be successful.   Suboptimal marketing results may be the result of not having knowledge of tourists’  preferences and characteristics. Lynch, Duinker, Sheehan, and Chute’s (2011) study found  that tourists’ interests varied. Older tourists had less reception for activities that involved physical exertion while younger, educated tourists  preferred activities that involved areas of cultural tourism. It may be useful, therefore, for CBT planners to use age as a means of determining tourists’ preferences. Cultural activities may be targeted to younger tourists. 

            In locations where involvement in tourism is rare due to cultural norms, strategies should be devised to counter established cultural traits that could retard tourism growth.   This would be beneficial to  countries  like Barbados, where CBT could be established..  Wang, Yang, Chen, Yang, and Li (2010) stated that,  in the West, local participation in tourism ventures was normative while such involvement in China was rare. Wang  et al. (2010) identified ways in which community residents with no exposure to tourism (due to cultural norms) could be integrated within a tourism program. These included incentive programs for residents to use local resources; establishment of educational and ecological courses as they related to tourism development, and the devising of payment programs to promote equitable distribution of benefits.

Summary and Conclusions

Brief Summary of Major Themes in the Literature

            Impact of global recession on Barbados.  Barbados’ economy has been declining since 2008, at the start of the global recession. Tourism, Barbados’ main industry, has also been severely afflicted (Central Bank of Barbados, 2012; International Monetary Fund, 2011). The economies of the United States and England – the main suppliers of tourists to Barbados – were also weakened by the global recession (Chitiba, Olaru, & Olaru, 2010; Gamble, 2009;  Economic Outlook, 2009;  Levine, 2009); as a result, dependence on these countries, whose economies were also in decline, led to a reduction of tourists into the island(Barbados Statistical Services, 2013).

            CBT. CBT was defined by Dolezal (2011) as tourism that was   managed by indigenous residents, where the gains from the program were  intentionally  allocated to benefit the community.  CBT  has been credited with strengthening weak tourism industries (Nkemngu, 2011), and in this respect,  may be  beneficial in assisting Barbados’ fragile  and weakened tourism industry. This literature review investigated the relationship between the variables CBT (independent variable) and attitudes, expectations, and cultural change (dependent variables).

            Attitudes. Lapeyre (2010) stated that CBT, was at times, not effective in creating positive changes in residents and that it did not always guarantee economic success. This was supported by Matarrita-Cascante, Brennan, and Luloff (2010), who concurred and explained that   positive resident attitudinal change was not acquired quickly; it was a goal that would have to be constantly aspired  and worked on  to achieve.    In responding to tourism matters,  attitudinal approaches were said to differ between  males and females (Wang, Bickle, &  Harrill, 2010). In striving to implement a successful tourism program, it may be important for tourism planners to take note of residents’ attitudes towards the proposal (Pipinos &  Fokiali, 2009). Barac, Dragicevic, and Letunic (2012) asserted that the strength of a CBT program may be determined by the attitudes and perceptions tourists have of a destination’s local culture. Alternatively, attitudes may also be affected by residents’ perception of tourists’ impacts (Byrd, Bosley, & Dronberger, 2009).  Tourism planners may need to exercise caution and determine the state of interpersonal relationships between residents because there may be a relationship between residents’ interpersonal relationships  and the success of a CBT program. Planners should be concerned about residents’ past exposure to tourism and their political and social experiences. They may also have to use all means available to influence positive attitudes in residents, including the practice of  RTM, CSR, promoting resident involvement in CBT, and the building of social capital (Evans & Sawyer, 2010; Frey & George, 2010; Hill, Wallner & Jose, 2010; Kaeokia,  & Jaikengkit, 2012; Koster, and Budke, 2012; Lee, 2013; Lepps, 2008; 2012; Sijlbing, 2010; Yen, Liu, & Tuan, 2009).  CBT stakeholders should take note and  make necessary alternative planning arrangements because weather conditions and global warming may be related to the supply of tourists to a destination (Lohmann, 2009; Maximiliano & Babu, 2012). Economic decline from a recession could fuel negative attitudes by residents toward tourism (Mbaiwa & Stronza, 2011; Vargas-Sanchez, Porras-Bueno, & Plaza-Mejia,  2011).  Crime levels, social class, and general satisfaction with life may affect residents’ attitudes toward CBT (Park & Stokowski, 2009; Uysal, & Sirgy, 2013).

            Expectations. There may be different expectations on the outcome of CBT among different tourism stakeholders, which could create conflict among the various groups (Dudensing, Huges,  & Shields, 2011). To avoid future disappointment and abandonment of a CBT project, tourism planning stakeholders should (a) appreciate that plans and expectations of the results of a program may not always be accurate (Sebele, 2010; Spencer & Nsiah, 2013) and (b) allow heterogeneous stakeholders take part in planning initiatives (Yang & Wall, 2009).  Tourism planners may raise confidence and expectations in a program if they do not waiver and act decisively in their plans (Buultjens & Gale, 2013). Resident expectations of a CBT program may be affected by local culture, religious values, personal experiences, the media, tourism growth, application of social exchange and social identity theories, usage of management techniques, perception of reward, and the initial fulfillment of community needs (Crossman, n.d;  Mekawy, 2012; Nunkoo &Gursoy, 2012; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011; Shakeela & Weaver, 2012; Simpson, 2008; Spencer, 2010;  Weaver & Lawton, 2013).  Knowledge  of tourists’purchase habits and traits in general may be a means of affecting residents’ expectations and opinions of CBT (Tangeland, Vennesland, &  Nybakk, 2013). Carlisle, Kunc, Jones,  and Tiffin (2013) asserted that sustainable small business ventures could give rise to positive resident attitudes.  Changing or increasing tourism forms  could affect community attitudes and responses, and may necessitate tourism planners to exercise caution on the mode and the way of implementation (Di Domenico  & Miller, 2012; Nyaupane & Poudel, 2011).  To normalize expectations and minimize conflict within the program, it may be necessary to include persons outside of the community, establish educational programs, and address the concerns of residents involved in the CBT initiative (Chen, 2011; Cottrell, Vaske, &  Roemer, 2013;  Iorio & Wall, 2012).                                                                                                                                                Culture. To avoid delays and problems in establishing CBT, it may be prudent for tourism planners to learn the cultural peculiarities of the local community and the tourists’ countries of origin (Connell, 2013; Ghaderi & Henderson, 2012). Salazar and Zhang (2013) further emphasized that planners should learn the distinctive traits according to class of tourists expected.  Jenkins (2004) described urbanization and globalization as threats to the sustenance of local cultural tourism; however, this was rebutted by Chai (2011), who maintained that once strategies were put in place, urbanization and globalization would not present a problem to local culture. Ingrained cultural habits at odds with the development  of tourism can inhibit CBT growth; however, this can be overcome by identifying and working and strengthening weak areas (Su, 2011; Tao & Wall, 2009).  There is a possibility that increased numbers  of tourists  and tourism earnings can lead  to a dilution of the cultural  mores of the host  country, and acceptance of cultural traits  of tourists (Ishii, 2012). Developing and including creative tourism with CBT may be a way to strengthen CBT (Campbell, 2011). If there are any cultural differences among heterogeneous tourism stakeholders, they may need to be addressed in the early phases of CBT in order to prevent altercations and subsequent weakening of the program (Lee, Riley, & Hampton, 2011). Establishing partnerships with tourism stakeholders from the  tourists’ country of origin, and including aspects of ethnic, sports, cultural, and dark  tourism  in CBT may help to enhance and establish  the program (Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003; Kidron, 2011; Mason & Duquette,  2008;  Ning & Hoon, 2011; Yang, 2011). CBT may be able to invigorate and boost a host country’s agricultural industry. (Aslimoski and Gerasimoski, 2012)

            Known Concepts in the Literature and Transition to Chapter 3

            There is no shortage of studies on CBT and its relationship to attitudes, expectations, and culture. However, there is silence on these concepts as they relate to the island of Barbados. Barbados has not yet implemented CBT as an additional line of  tourism. The responses of participants in other locations concerning implemented CBT and  attitudes, expectations, and  changes in local culture may be an indication of how implemented CBT may affect Barbados.  The next chapter highlights the methodology and instruments that will be used for the data collection process of this proposed study.

  CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Purpose of this Study

            The slowdown in the Barbados economy has been tied to the decline in economies of the United States and Canada, who  are the main sources of the supply of tourists to the island. These two countries (United States and Canada) were also negatively affected by the global recession. (International Monetary Fund, 2010). 

            Strengthening Barbados’ tourism industry should help  its  economy to grow. CBT has strengthened and reinvigorated tourism industries of other countries. (Diss & Trent, 2009). If CBT is introduced to Barbados, and led to operate along traditional land-based tourism,  it may help the island’s ailing industry  The purpose of this study is to ascertain and evaluate local (Barbados) attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture towards proposed implementation of CBT.

            Creswell (2009) outlined and explained the differences among three different research designs:  qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs.  Quantitative research involved determining the relationship between  the independent and dependent variables of the inquiry; it did  not determine why the variables reacted. Qualitative research involved exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals or groups; it was not concerned with examining the relationship between  variables. Mixed method inquiry combined both features of quantitative and qualitative inquiry. Babbie (1990) stated (as cited in Creswell, 2009, p.12) “Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection …population.”  This study will use a quantitatively designed survey because it will seek to determine the relationship among  the independent variable CBT and the dependent variables attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture.

Preview of Major Sections of Chapter 3

            This chapter will highlight the sampling strategy used and how the sample was drawn, instruments used, their validity and reliability, recruiting procedures, and the data analysis plan.  

Research Design and Rationale

Study Variables

            The independent variable for this study is CBT while the independent variables are attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture.

 Research Design and Connection to the Research Questions

            This quantitatively designed survey study will evaluate the statistical relationship among the independent variable CBT and the dependent variables attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture based on the following research questions:

            RQ1: What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and local                                    attitudes in Barbados?

            RQ2:  What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and local                                   expectations in Barbados?

            RQ3:  What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and changes in                          local culture in Barbados?

Time and Resource Constraints Consistent with Design Choice

            This proposed research will use a cross-sectional survey approach. As such, it will require door-to-door interviews being conducted with participants over a short-period of time. The estimated time to complete each interview is approximately 15 minutes. The total estimated time for all interviews should be 2430 minutes (162 participants x 15 minutes per participant).      

How Design Choice is Consistent with Research Designs Needed to Advance Knowledge in the Discipline

            The choice of this research design is consistent with studies that seek to identify “what factors or variables influence an outcome” (Creswell, 2009, p.99). The proposed study will seek to identify the relationships between CBT (independent variable) and attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture (independent variables). There are no studies available that highlight how the dependent variables, attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture would react to CBT in the context of Barbados. This study will fill that gap for future researchers and business practitioners.

Methodology

Population

            Target population. The target population for this study will be responsible persons over the age of 21, who can take part in a CBT program. One person per household will be included. Barbados is divided into 11 parishes. The aim is to select participants from each parish that would be representative of the entire population. 

            Estimation of population size. Barbados is situated in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is the most easterly of the chain of islands in the Eastern Caribbean. Islands. It is 166 square miles in area (2.5 times the size of Washington). The estimated resident population of Barbados is 277,821 persons (Barbados Statistical Services, 2013; Central Intelligence Agency, 2013).

Sampling and Sampling Procedure

            The purpose of a research sample is to seek to obtain a representative sample of the larger population. A representative sample is a sample that is believed to represent the whole population when results are given from analyses conducted (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008). Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) described the differences between non- probability and probability sampling:

            Non-probability sampling. In non-probability sampling, the probability of the inclusion of a particular sample cannot be determined.  Non-probability sampling can be used, however, when the costs of probability sampling are too high.  Convenience, purposive, and quota sampling are three types of sampling designs that  utilize non-probability sampling.

            Convenience sampling. Samples are chosen from whatever is available from the population.

            Purposive sampling. Samples are subjectively chosen by the researcher based on what he or she thinks is most representative of the population.

            Quota sampling. Samples are chosen by quota according to  the known representatives of the group.

            In respect of sample selection, non- probability sampling incurs hunches and feelings on the part of the researcher, and, therefore, is not totally representative of the population. It cannot ensure that the findings would not differ by any amount if the study were repeated and different samples drawn from the same population.  Non-probability, therefore, would not be appropriate for this study.

            Probability sampling. This involves the ability to statistically approximate the sample units that will be represented in the sample frame. If the study were to be repeated, the findings would be expected not to differ by more than a calculated, specified amount.

            As it relates to probability sampling, Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) stated that the most common used were simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. 

            Random sampling. Each sample unit of the population is assigned a particular non-zero number of being selected. A table of random digits is used in the process.

            Systematic sampling. The first sample unit is selected randomly; subsequently each sample is selected according to intervals.

            Stratified sampling.  Stratified sampling includes breaking-down the larger population into smaller populations, which have homogeneous characteristics of the larger population.

            Cluster sampling. The population is divided into a determined number of homogeneous groups (clusters) while the sample is chosen randomly from these smaller clusters. Cluster sampling is a cost-effective mode of statistical sampling that is usually used when the population is large.

            How the sample will be drawn. The sampling strategy of this study will be stratified sampling: The total population will be broken down into 11 smaller populations (clusters) that represent the 11 parishes of the island. The sample will have the demographic characteristics of the total population (which consists of 11 parishes/clusters).  

             Sample frame inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants must be responsible adults over 21 years of age and of either gender.  The subjects must be of sound mind, able to take part in a CBT program, and capable of making rational  business decisions.  

            Power analysis.  To aid in calculating sample size, Burkholder (2012) recommended using  G*power software, and stated that the values for statistical power, Alpha level, and effect size would have to be predetermined.  Burkholder (2012) explained how to compute sample size and the necessary components of statistical power, alpha level, and effect size: 

            Statistical power. Refers to  the probability of the test rejecting the null hypothesis (HO), when the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is true. The traditionally accepted value is .80.

            Alpha level.  This value refers to  the probability that the test will reject HO when HO is true (supporting the alternative decision when the null hypothesis is true). Conventional values are .05 or .01.

            Type 1 error: Support for Ha when Ho is true.

            Type 2 error: Not supporting Ha when Ha is true.

            Effect size.  Determines how large or how strong the relationship is between the variables. The effect size is manually calculated.

            Determination of sample size. Sample size can be manually calculated.  The following formula was given by Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008): n = s2/SE2.

Where n = sample size.

            s = standard diviation; s2 = standard deviation squared.

            SE = standard error; SE2 = standard error squared.

            s2 and SE2 are not known for this study, but the sample size can be  calculated using G*power software. Burkholder (2012) stated that the effect size of a study could be calculated by using the value given in prior research. Cohen(1988) specified (as cited in Burkholder, 2012), convention sizes as follows: small effect – d = < .50; medium effect –  d = .50 – .80, and large effect –  d > .80. Where d =  Cohen’s d, or effect size.

The sample size can be calculated using G* Power software as illustrated below, where the sample size is calculated at 407 persons:

Figure 1: G* Calculation of Sample Size. Adapted from G*Power.

The below is the breakdown of G* test that was  carried out.

Test family: F

F tests – ANOVA: Fixed effects, omnibus, one-way

Analysis:    A priori: Compute required sample size

Input:         Effect size f                            =  0.25

                   α err prob                                =  0.05

                   Power (1-β err prob)              =  0.95

                   Number of groups                  =  11

Output:       Noncentrality parameter λ     =  25.4375000

                   Critical F                                =  1.8546311

                   Numerator df                         =  10

                   Denominator df                     =  396

                   Total sample size                    =  407

                   Actual power                          =  0.9542733

Results

            The sample size can also be calculated manually. If calculated manually, the sample size will be 384 participants. This figure is calculated as follows:

            (Z score)2 X .5(.5) / (.05)2

Where,

            Z score = (1.96. confidence intervals/  .95assumed confidence levels.

            .5 =  assumed standard deviation

            .05 = margin of error (1 – .95 assumed confidence level)

Hence, 

            (1.96)2 X .5(.5) / (.05)2= 384 participants

Recruiting Procedures and Demographic Information

            Recruiting procedures and demographics. Participants of this study will be households from the entire island of Barbados.  Selected participants will be representative of the population of Barbados  as it relates to the  demographics of gender, age, income, employment, and education level. The following is a map of Barbados divided into 11 parishes:

Figure 2. Map of Barbados by Parish.  Adapted from Treasure (n.d.).

            Government tourism officials will also be interviewed. Participants of the study will initially be vested with covering letters to identify the purpose of the study, sponsoring organization and the person carrying out the research, importance of the inquiry, and the assurance that the information provided by the respondent will be confidential (Franfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).  Stratified sampling will be the sampling method used to sample the larger population.  The sample will be broken down into 11 clusters, with each cluster representing one of the 11 parishes. Cluster sampling was recommended by Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) as being cost effective and useful in studies with large populations. One adult per household will be interviewed.  A sample will also be drawn from government employees who are involved in tourism.

            Providing informed consent to participants and data collection. Walden’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that all research complies with ethical standards set Walden University and the United States of America’s federal regulations. All research must first be approved, and ethical standards adhered as set by the IRB  before credit is granted for completed research (Walden, n.d.). I will devise my informed consent form according to the requirements of Walden University’s sample informed consent form (Walden, n.d.), and will ensure that all rights of the participants are respected and that there are no breaches in ethical standards. The form will be delivered before the surveys are started.

            Data collection. Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) highlighted three survey methods: personal interview, mail, and telephone (inclusive of the internet).  All collection methods have their advantages and disadvantages; however, for this study, control over the interview situation, response rate, and collection of detailed data are necessary.  The personal interview, therefore, should be the preferred data collection method.  

            Debriefing and follow-up procedures.  This study will be cross-sectional; hence, data will be collected in a single interview. This differs with longitudinal research, where data is collected from the sample on more than one occasion (Creswell, 2009).

Pilot Study 

            A pilot study is a small-scale study which can be used  in enabling researchers to justify whether or not a study should be undertaken. A sample study also outlines potential problems, advantages, or disadvantages the larger study may incur (Leon, Davis, & Kraemer, 2011). In addition,  pilot studies can be of use in identifying unnecessary elements in the research, testing participants amending data forms when necessary,  and adequately designing the study (Nunes, Martins, Zhou, Alamjamy, & AI-M., 2010).  I will carry out a pilot study before the general study, and interview around 30 participants as recommended by Leon, Davis, and Kraemer (2011). The sample to be drawn will be a smaller version of the larger study and will consist of  participants with similar demographics from the 11 parishes across Barbados.

 Researcher Instruments

            The design of questions in the surveys will be closed-ended and rated on the likert scale. All items on the questionnaire will be given a value. Total scores will be calculated by adding the values of all checked items (Frankfort-Nachmias &Nachmias, 2008).  This study will use surveys as the measuring instrument, structured on the 5-point Likert scale as used in the study by Lopez-Guzman, Borges, Castillo-Canalejo (2011). The following is an example of the questions that will be rated:                             

1.      Strongly disagree

2.      Disagree

3.      Neither agree nor disagree

4.      Agree

5.      Strongly agree

The pilot study of 30 persons will also have  the same questions based on the rated  likert scale.

Plan to Provide Evidence for Reliability

            Instrument reliability refers to the extent which measured repeated items give the same results. It does not refer to the accuracy of the results (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).  According to George and Mallery (2003) and Tavakol and Dennick (2011) described Cronbach’s Alpha (a) as a statistical test that is used to determine the reliability of the items on a questionnaire. The closer a is to one, the greater the reliability of the measuring instrument. The further a is from zero, the lower the reliability of the measuring instrument. Questions with results below 0.3 may need to be discarded. Traditional ratings are as follows:

a 0.9 or greater = excellent.

a  between 0.8 and 0.9 = good.

a between 0.7 and 0.8 = acceptable.

a between 0.6 and 0.7 = questionable.

a between 0.5 and 0.6 = poor.

a between less than 0.5 = unacceptable.

The reliability of the questionnaires can also be assessed by using the test-retest method.

Franfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) defined this procedure as using the same instrument twice with the same participants, and subsequently calculating the correlation between the two scores by the two instruments used.  Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) stated that the test-retest method was limited in that changes might have occurred in the measured variables during the period between the two tests, and respondents might remember questions and give the same answers on the second test, thereby biasing the results. However, Siegle (2002) advised that to surmount this problem the researcher should wait for a period of time that would allow the respondent to forget the answers given on the first questionnaire.

Instrument Validity

            Instrument validity refers to how well an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Scores must permit researchers to be able to make appropriate inferences. There are three types of validity:  content, empirical, and construct validity (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008; Siegel, n.d.).  Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) described the three forms of validity:

            Content validity.  Measuring instrument covers a broad range of every aspect of the phenomena under study. Content validity is broken down in to face and sampling validity:

            Face validity. Researcher’s subjective judgment decides the appropriateness of the instrument. Validity can be evaluated by a panel of experts who give judgment on the completeness of the questions covering all aspects of the phenomenon under study. However, this method of verification was said to be subjective and weak.

            Sampling validity. Concerned with whether the research population variable is adequately sampled. Verification of sampling validity – like face validity – was also stated to be subjective and weak because the definition  of the sampling population may not always be determined.

            Empirical (predictive) validity. Refers to the extent measured outcomes reflect similar outcomes with other measured variables in the real world. The measuring instrument is valid if the outcomes are similar. A correlation coefficient analysis would have to be conducted to test the relationships that exist among the variables between at least two similar studies: the study under consideration and one carried out by external sources.

            Construct validity. Connotes the assurance that the instrument is measuring what it is supposed to measure and not other variables. It is “the degree to which a researcher can make inferences by establishing a relationship between concepts of the original instrument to real world observations.  Construct validity is verified if a connection can be made between the  measuring instrument’s questions and the theoretical framework of the study  (Phelan & Wren, n.d.).

Plan to provide evidence of instrument validity

             Instrument validity will be provided by face validity and carrying out construct validity. The survey questions will be compared with the theoretical framework of the study. All aspects of the questionnaires’ questions will relate to the research questions and finally research problem statement. 

Operationalizing the variables

            The following are the variables of this study: Independent variable – CBT: dependent variables -attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture.

Operationalizing Attitudes

            Data will be collected on this variable by means of questionnaires. Each statement or question will be measured on a Likert-type scale.  An example of ratings could be:

Strongly agree = 5; agree = 4; neither agree or disagree = 3; disagree = 2, and strongly disagree = 1 (Franfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).  Measurement of the variable attitudes along the Likert scale was carried out by the study conducted by Wang, Bickle, and   Harrill (2010).

Operationalizing Expectations

            Measurement of expectations will be carried out by way of Likert scale format. The variable, expectation was measured using the Likert scale in the study by Dudensing, Hughes, and Shields (2011).

Operationalizing Local Culture

            Yang  used questionnaires which included a five-point likert scale to measure variables in his 2011  tourism and cultural study. This proposed study will continue in that format for its methodology as it relates to culture.

Data Analysis Plan

Software

            Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) will be used in this study in analyzing statistical data. SPSS is a statistical software package that can calculate a wide range of statistical problems (University of Wisconsin – Madison, 2011).

                               Restatement of Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Questions

            RQ1: What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and local                                    attitudes in Barbados?

            RQ2:  What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and local                                   expectations in Barbados?

            RQ3:  What is the correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and changes in                          local culture in Barbados?

Research Hypotheses

 Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the proposed introduction of CBT and                         local attitudes in Barbados.

Ha1:  There is a significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                             local attitudes in Barbados.

Ho2:   There is no significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and

           local expectations  in Barbados.

Ha2:   There is a significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                            local expectations in Barbados.

Ho3:  There is no significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                         changes in local culture in Barbados.

Ha3: There is a significant correlation between the proposed introduction of CBT and                            changes in local culture in Barbados.                                                                        

Analysis Plan

            Roberts, Wallace, and France (2003) described analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a test (as cited in Jones, 2012) that is used to compare means from three or more groups, where the critical values are obtained from  the F-distribution with the appropriate degrees of freedom.

One-way analysis of variance  (ANOVA) is used when comparing the means of three or more independent groups. It is also used to estimate the differences between groups (Abhishek, 2009; StatSoft Electronic Statistics Textbook, n.d.).     

             Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is used when there are several dependent variables being tested to one independent variable (Field, 2009; Leeper, 2013).  Field (2009) stated “the default way to follow up a MANOVA is to look at individual univariate ANNOVAs for each dependent variable” (p. 607). In conjunction with Field’s (2009) recommendation, this study will make use of one-way ANOVA when comparing group means and estimating possible differences within the groups.    

Interpretation of Results

            The F-distribution is used to perform the test of hypothesis. The null hypothesis implies that all population means of the sample are equal; the alternative hypothesis connotes that there is a difference with, at least, one mean. Hence, if  p (the probability of obtaining a test result) is less than .05 (p<.05), one will reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a significant difference  between the means of the groups. Alternatively, p>.05, indicates that there is no significant difference between the means of the group, and the null hypothesis is accepted.  The numeral, .05 is regarded as the traditional confidence level. This difference can be determined by using the Scheffe or Tukey test in SPSS (Donnelly, 2007). Usually the variables in ANOVA are categorical, not continuous (Abhishek, 2009). Hence, for this study, I will use one-way ANOVA, MANCOVA, and other tests that are necessary in interpreting  results.

            There are assumptions that are mandated for one-way ANOVA:

1.      The population of interest must be normally distributed.

2.      Samples must be independent of one another.

3.      Each population must have the same variance (Jones, n.d).

            Roberts, Wallace, and Frances (2003) described one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a test (as cited in Jones, 2012), that is used to compare means from three or more samples, where the critical values are obtained from  the F-distribution with the appropriate degrees of freedom.   

            Using SPSS, various tests will be used: ANNOVA, descriptive, multiple comparisons, and Tukey HSD. In identifying the mean relationships between the independent and dependent variables, the significance or “p” value would have to be determined. A statistical difference exists if  p is less than .05 (p <.05), which is the traditional confidence level.  The null hypothesis would be rejected with the conclusion that there is a significant difference among the means of the population.  If p>.05, the null hypothesis would be accepted. This implies that there is no significant difference among the means of the population. The null hypotheses would be accepted ((Roberts, Wallace, & Frances, 2003).  This can be written-up in the results table as follows:

            Statistical difference the means – f (df, wdf) = F, p<.05, two-tailed.

             No statistical difference the means – f (df, wdf) = F, p<.05, two-tailed.

Where:

            df: between groups degrees of freedom.

            wdf: without groups degrees of freedom.

            F: F ratio.

Threats to External Validity

            External validity of a quantitative research design is the extent to which  results of a study can be generalized to other populations and different social settings.  External validity is compromised when the characteristics of the participants differ from the population under study, and when external factors influence participants to react in a particular manner (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).

            Addressing threats to external validity.  Both pretest and posttest sample households will be chosen by probability sampling to avoid bias.  To avert reactivity among the participants, I will ensure that there is no collusion between participants of the study. 

Threats to Internal Validity

            Internal validity is concerned with whether changes in the independent variable were responsible for changes in the dependent variable. Threats to internal validity include history (length of the elapsed  time between the pretest and posttest); maturation of subjects; mortality of subjects; changes in the measuring instrument; reactivity of measurement, and assignment of subjects with extreme scores (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008).

            Addressing threats to internal validity. To avert threats to internal validity and subsequent compromising of the study, I would ensure that there is a short span of time between the  pretest and the  posttest; conclude the studies within a period time to weaken maturation and experimental mortality; try to maintain stability of the measuring instrument; avoid the inclusion of extreme scores, and  avoid overlapping of questions from the pretest to the posttest.

Threats to Construct Validity

            Trochim (2009) stated that construct validity referred to the ability of the measuring tool to measure what it is supposed to measure. Threats and possible solutions to the threats as advanced by Trochim (2009) are listed below. They can be applied to this study:

                Threat                                                    Possible Solution

Weak construct definition.            Use concept mapping; assess the concept properly.

Mono -operation bias                               Implement different versions of program.

Mono-method bias.                 Implement multiple measures of key constructs in pilot study

Ethical Procedures

            The Walden University Institutional Review Board (IRB) is responsible for ensuring that all research is carried out ethically, and in compliance with the University’s and Federal standards. Hence, this study will conform to all ethical requirements by Walden University (Walden University, n.d.). It is the role of the IRB to ensure that risks of the study are justified, participants engage in research willingly and knowingly, research methods are safe and correspond to the study’s objectives, research is scrutinized, and privacy of research subjects is safeguarded.  Researchers must complete and submit relevant approved Walden University application forms in order for the IRB’s role to materialize (Walden University, 2013). The proposed study will ensure that all relevant forms are submitted to the IRB for approval. The forms for the attention of the IRB are in included in the appendix.

Summary of Research Methodology

            The purpose of the methodology chapter is to explain how data will be collected and analyzed for the study.  This research will use a cross-sectional quantitative survey approach. Data will be collected form mature households and tourism officials from the Barbados government. An initiation letter will first be posted to the subjects, followed by direct  data collection by way of surveys.  The survey instrument will be researcher-developed, and will be tested for instrument reliability and validity to ensure that there is no bias and that results reported represent the views of the interviewed subjects. A total of 162 persons is the required sample size for this study. Chapter four will provide findings of the data collected.

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Appendix A: Consent Form

CONSENT FORM

My name is Bertram Jones, and I am a Walden University Ph.D management student. I  am requesting your help in a study on community-based tourism (CBT),  titled,  “Evaluating local attitudes, expectations, and changes in local culture through proposed implementation of community based tourism.”

I am inviting at random working adults over 18 years old who would have an interest in tourism development. Your participation  is voluntary, and your answers to the questions  will be anonymous. You may refuse to participate or withdraw at any time.

Background Information:

            The purpose of the study is to evaluate Barbadians’ attitudes, expectations, and perception of changes in local culture as a result of proposed implementation of community-based tourism.

Procedures:

If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to:

·         _take part in completing a questionnaire that will take approximately 15 minutes to complete.

·         _data will be collected once.

·         __the interview period should not last longer than 15  minutes__

Here are some sample questions:                                Strongly                                           Strongly

      Attitudes                                                               Disagree  Disagree Neutral Agree   Agree 

CBT will improve my standard of living.

CBT will provide me with more recreational

than presently available.

I believe CBT should be encouraged.

Expectations

CBT will revive tourism

CBT will encourage resident service efficiency

CBT benefits will outweigh the costs.

Changes in local culture

CBT will negatively alter traditional beliefs and

community values

CBT will boost local cultural activities

CBT will weaken community value systems

Voluntary Nature of the Study:

This study is voluntary. Everyone will respect your decision of whether or not you choose to be in the study. No one at governmental institutions  of Barbados or your workplace the Barbados Board of Tourism; the Ministry of Tourism Barbados  will treat you differently if you decide not to be in the study. If you decide to join the study now, you can still change your mind later. You may stop at any time.

Risks and Benefits of Being in the Study:

Being in this type of study involves some risk of the minor discomforts that can be encountered in daily life, such as there will be no harm_in being victimized, sick, or stressed. Being in this study would not pose risk to your safety or wellbeing

This Study’s Potential Benefits

CBT may be a tourism niche that can help  boost Barbados’ ailing tourism industry. The purpose of this inquiry is to  identify local attitudes, expectations, and possible changes local culture  if CBT is introduced to Barbados. Your contribution to this study will assist the government and tourism decision-makers in identifying  Barbadians’ response to CBT implementation. As a result, your input may be part of improving the present state of the tourism industry, contributing to the financial development of the country, increasing the research body of knowledge as it relates to CBT, and making a contribution to positive social change.

Payment:

Participants will receive a pen as an appreciation of thanks at the completion of the questionnaires

Privacy:

Any information you provide will be kept confidential. The researcher will not use your personal information for any purposes outside of this research project. Also, the researcher will not include your name or anything else that could identify you in the study reports. Data will be stored and  kept secure by the researcher, Bertram Jones. Numerals will be attached to the sheets and not your name. Data will be kept for a period of at least 5 years, as required by the university.

Contacts and Questions:

You may ask any questions you have now. Or if you have questions later, you may contact the researcher via 246-428-2772, or at the email address  Bertram.jones@waldenu.edu.  If you want to talk privately about your rights as a participant, you can call Dr. Leilani Endicott. She is the Walden University representative who can discuss this with you. Her phone number is 001-612-312-1210. Walden University’s approval number for this study is IRB will enter approval number here and it expires on IRB will enter expiration date.

Insert the phrase that matches the format of the study:

The researcher will give you a copy of this form to keep

Statement of Consent:

I have read the above information and I feel I understand the study well enough to make a decision about my involvement. By signing and keeping a copy of this form, I understand that I am agreeing to the terms described above.

Only include the signature section below if using paper consent forms.

                                    Appendix B: Confidentiality Agreement

CONFIDENTIALITY  AGREEMENT

Name of Signer:         Bertram Jones                                  

During the course of my activity in collecting data for this research: “Evaluating Local Attitudes, Expectations, and Changes in Local Culture Through Proposed Implementation of Community-Based Tourism: A Barbados Model”, I will have access to information, which is confidential and should not be disclosed. I acknowledge that the information must remain confidential, and that improper disclosure of confidential information can be damaging to the participant.

By signing this Confidentiality Agreement I acknowledge and agree that:

1.       I will not disclose or discuss any confidential information with others, including friends or family.

2.       I will not in any way divulge copy, release, sell, loan, alter or destroy any confidential information except as properly authorized.

3.       I will not discuss confidential information where others can overhear the conversation. I understand that it is not acceptable to discuss confidential information even if the participant’s name is not used.

4.       I will not make any unauthorized transmissions, inquiries, modification or purging of confidential information.

5.       I agree that my obligations under this agreement will continue after termination of the job that I will perform.

6.       I understand that violation of this agreement will have legal implications.

7.       I will only access or use systems or devices I’m officially authorized to access and I will not demonstrate the operation or function of systems or devices to unauthorized individuals.

Signing this document, I acknowledge that I have read the agreement and I agree to comply with all the terms and conditions stated above.

Signature:      Bertram Jones                                   Date: XXXXX

               Appendix C: Letter of Cooperation from a Community Research Partner

REMOVE THIS RED SECTION BEFORE HAVING THE LETTER SIGNED

To the researcher: You must tailor a letter of cooperation for your study and obtain an ink or electronic signature from any organization that is willing to be involved in identifying potential participants or collecting data. Note that a letter of cooperation is not necessary if the partner’s ONLY role is to distribute research invitations (in the form of flyers, packets, or emails) on the researcher’s behalf because their actions will sufficiently demonstrate their willingness to cooperate with the researcher. Questions can be sent to IRB@waldenu.edu.

If ink signatures are obtained, the signed letters can be e-mailed as attachments to irb@waldenu.edu or faxed to 626-605-0472. Electronic signatures are also acceptable, however if used it is required that the signer of the form either e-mail it directly to irb@waldenu.edu or be cc-ed upon the submission so the e-signature can be verified.

The letter of cooperation should include the following:

1. Detailed description of any recruitment, data collection, memberchecking, and results dissemination activities that will occur at the site.
2. Detailed description of the involvement of any of the site’s personnel, rooms, or resources.
3. Clarity regarding whether the site personnel are providing any supervision of the research activities (particularly if the local personnel will be relied upon to help resolve a crisis situation). If not, then it is assumed that only the remote faculty members are supervising the researcher.
4. For program evaluations and intervention studies: The letter must include clear indication of the facility’s role in sponsoring and assuming liability for the program/intervention under study. (Walden cannot sponsor, oversee, or assume liability for any type of program or intervention.) If the site is making any modifications to its standard intervention/program procedures in order to accommodate the research study, the letter needs to confirm that the site is willingly adopting these changes  as part of their normal operations during the course of the study.

Sample Letter of Cooperation from a Community Research Partner

Community Research Partner Name: Barbados Board of Tourism/Barbados Ministry of Tourism

Contact Information

Date xxxx

Dear Researcher Name, Bertram Jones

Based on my review of your research proposal, I give permission for you to conduct the study entitled “Evaluating Local Attitudes, Expectations, and Changes in Local Culture Through Proposed Implementation of Community-Based Tourism: A Barbados Model” Insert Name of Community Partner.  As part of this study, I authorize you to include relevant data collection instruments such as questionnaires to use for data collection purposes. Individuals’ participation will be voluntary and at their own discretion.

We understand that our organization’s responsibilities include: the usage of relevant rooms or stations to conduct the interview process. We reserve the right to withdraw from the study at any time if our circumstances change.

I confirm that I am authorized to approve research in this setting.

I understand that the data collected will remain entirely confidential and may not be provided to anyone outside of the research team without permission from the Walden University IRB. 

Sincerely,

Authorization Official  xxxxx

Contact Information

Walden University policy on electronic signatures: An electronic signature is just as valid as a written signature as long as both parties have agreed to conduct the transaction electronically. Electronic signatures are regulated by the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act. Electronic signatures are only valid when the signer is either (a) the sender of the email, or (b) copied on the email containing the signed document. Legally an “electronic signature” can be the person’s typed name, their email address, or any other identifying marker. Walden University staff verify any electronic signatures that do not originate from a password-protected source (i.e., an email address officially on file with Walden).

Appendix D: Sample Data Collection Coordination Request

School research REQUIRES a letter of cooperation from a principal (or higher).

But this type of Data Collection Coordination Request must also be obtained from the classroom teacher(s) any time that research data collection will be disruptive to instructional activities.

It is not quite a consent form but it establishes a mutual understanding between the researcher and the teacher about how data collection will occur in a manner that minimally disrupts classroom activities.

From the perspective of the Walden University Institutional Review Board (IRB), this form may be presented in either letter or e-mail format. Please also note, an unsigned draft, tailored to the study should be submitted with the IRB materials. Researchers will obtain signatures after IRB approval has been obtained and keep the signed forms as part of their data files.

Please contact irb@waldenu.edu if you have any questions about the appropriate content for the data collection coordination request form. 

Data Collection Coordination Request

Date  xxxxxx

Dear Teacher,

I have obtained the principal’s support to collect data for my research project entitled “Evaluating Local Attitudes, Expectations, and Changes in Local Culture Through Proposed Implementation of Community-Based Tourism: A Barbados Model”

Insert Study Name.

I am requesting your cooperation in the data collection process. I propose to collect data on IOctober 10,, 2013 – November 10, 2013. I will coordinate the exact times of data collection with you in order to minimize disruption to your instructional activities.

If you agree to be part of this research project, I would ask that you (Insert a brief description of the research activities, including makeup work with the student if applicable. Be sure to describe how long each student would be expected to miss classtime).

If you prefer not to be involved in this study, that is not a problem at all.

If circumstances change, please contact me via bertram.jones@waldenu.eduInsert Contact Information.

Thank you for your consideration. I would be pleased to share the results of this study with you if you are interested.

I am requesting your signature to document that I have cleared this data collection with you. (For email versions of this letter, you may instead state, I am requesting that you reply to this email with “I agree” to document that I have cleared this data collection with you.)

Sincerely,

Researcher Name

Electronic signatures are regulated by the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act.  Legally, an “electronic signature” can be the person’s typed name, their email address, or any other identifying marker. An electronic signature is just as valid as a written signature as long as both parties have agreed to conduct the transaction electronically. 

                                                Appendix E:  Data Use Agreement

DATA USE AGREEMENT

This Data Use Agreement (“Agreement”), effective as of        (“Effective Date”), is entered into by and between Bertram Jones(“Data Recipient”) and xxxx (“Data Provider”).  The purpose of this Agreement is to provide Data Recipient with access to a Limited Data Set (“LDS”) for use in research in accord with the HIPAA and FERPA Regulations. 

1.      Definitions.  Unless otherwise specified in this Agreement, all capitalized terms used in this Agreement not otherwise defined have the meaning established for purposes of the “HIPAA Regulations” codified at Title 45 parts 160 through 164 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, as amended from time to time.

2.      Preparation of the LDS.  Data Provider shall prepare and furnish to Data Recipient a LDS in accord with any applicable HIPAA or FERPA Regulations

3.      Data Fields in the LDS.  No direct identifiers such as names may be included in the Limited Data Set (LDS). In preparing the LDS, Data Provider shall include the data fields specified as follows, which are the minimum necessary to accomplish the research (list all data to be provided):      .

4.      Responsibilities of Data Recipient.  Data Recipient agrees to:

a.                   Use or disclose the LDS only as permitted by this Agreement or as required by law;

b.                  Use appropriate safeguards to prevent use or disclosure of the LDS other than as permitted by this Agreement or required by law;

c.                   Report to Data Provider any use or disclosure of the LDS of which it becomes aware that is not permitted by this Agreement or required by law;

d.                  Require any of its subcontractors or agents that receive or have access to the LDS to agree to the same restrictions and conditions on the use and/or disclosure of the LDS that apply to Data Recipient under this Agreement; and

e.                   Not use the information in the LDS to identify or contact the individuals who are data subjects.

5.      Permitted Uses and Disclosures of the LDS.  Data Recipient may use and/or disclose the LDS for its Research activities only. 

6.      Term and Termination.

a.                   Term.  The term of this Agreement shall commence as of the Effective Date and shall continue for so long as Data Recipient retains the LDS, unless sooner terminated as set forth in this Agreement.

b.                  Termination by Data Recipient.  Data Recipient may terminate this agreement at any time by notifying the Data Provider and returning or destroying the LDS. 

c.                   Termination by Data Provider.  Data Provider may terminate this agreement at any time by providing thirty (30) days prior written notice to Data Recipient. 

d.                  For Breach.  Data Provider shall provide written notice to Data Recipient within ten (10) days of any determination that Data Recipient has breached a material term of this Agreement.  Data Provider shall afford Data Recipient an opportunity to cure said alleged material breach upon mutually agreeable terms.  Failure to agree on mutually agreeable terms for cure within thirty (30) days shall be grounds for the immediate termination of this Agreement by Data Provider.

e.                   Effect of Termination.  Sections 1, 4, 5, 6(e) and 7 of this Agreement shall survive any termination of this Agreement under subsections c or d. 

7.      Miscellaneous.

a.                   Change in Law.  The parties agree to negotiate in good faith to amend this Agreement to comport with changes in federal law that materially alter either or both parties’ obligations under this Agreement.  Provided however, that if the parties are unable to agree to mutually acceptable amendment(s) by the compliance date of the change in applicable law or regulations, either Party may terminate this Agreement as provided in section 6.

b.                  Construction of Terms.  The terms of this Agreement shall be construed to give effect to applicable federal interpretative guidance regarding the HIPAA Regulations.

c.                   No Third Party Beneficiaries.  Nothing in this Agreement shall confer upon any person other than the parties and their respective successors or assigns, any rights, remedies, obligations, or liabilities whatsoever.

d.                  Counterparts.  This Agreement may be executed in one or more counterparts, each of which shall be deemed an original, but all of which together shall constitute one and the same instrument.

e.                   Headings.  The headings and other captions in this Agreement are for convenience and reference only and shall not be used in interpreting, construing or enforcing any of the provisions of this Agreement.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, each of the undersigned has caused this Agreement to be duly executed in its name and on its behalf.

DATA PROVIDER                                                                 DATA RECIPIENT

                                                                                                                        xxxxxxxxxx

Signed:                                                                                   Signed:                                                

Print Name:                                                                             Print Name:     Bertram Jones                        

Print Title:                              

            Appendix F:  Authorization to use or Disclose PHI for Research Purposes

Authorization to Use or Disclose PHI for Research Purposes

The top portion of this form (above the dotted line) should be completed by the researcher.  A copy of the form should be given to the research participant for his/her personal records.

Research Participant Name: _____xxxxx______________________________

Phone:__xxxx_____________

Address: ___xxxx___________________________________________________________

Discloser of Information: _xxx       

Recipient of Information: ______________________

Means of disclosing information (i.e., verbal, written, etc.):______________________

Information to be disclosed:   

q  School district/educational data

q  Mental Health/psychological data

q  Legal data 

q  Chemical dependency/abuse data

q  Medical data

q  Other (specify)_____________________________________________________  

Reason for the Release:  This information is being released/obtained for the purpose of ____________________Research procedures with Walden University ____________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————————-

Authorization Provided by Research Participant: 

I understand that this authorization permits the release of information between the two parties named above. 

I understand that I have the right to refuse to sign this release form.

I understand that upon release, this information will be kept confidential; my identity will be concealed and data will not be re-disclosed outside of the specified individuals or agencies.

I understand a photocopy of this release will be as effective as the original.

I understand this authorization will be in effect for 12 months from the date signed unless cancelled by me in writing.  Upon receipt of the written cancellation, this release will be void.

________xxxx______________________________________________________________

Signature                                                                                                             Date                                                                                                                                    08/26/2013

(Signature of a Parent/Guardian if the person is under 18 or incompetent)

______________________________________________________________________

Appendix G:  Survey Instrument

Evaluating Residents’ Attitudes

We would like to find out your attitudes toward CBT. Please indicate your level of agreement with the below statements by circling one answer for each statement as per scales 1 through 5 outlined.

Appendix H:  Survey Instrument

Evaluating Residents’ Expectations

This set of questions requests your opinion on what you believe or expect CBT will bring about upon implementation.  Please indicate your level of agreement with the below statements by circling one answer for each statement as per scales 1 through 5 outlined.

Appendix I:  Survey Instrument

                                    Evaluating Residents’ Opinions on Cultural Change

This section seeks to identify your opinion on what changes may occur in local culture should

Barbados engage in CBT.  Please indicate your level of agreement with the below statements by

circling one answer for each statement as per scales 1 through 5 outlined.

1.      Strongly Disagree    2.  Disagree     3.  Neutral     4.   Agree     5.  Strongly agree   

Section 3.  Cultural Change	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly Agree
Q1.  CBT will negatively alter         traditional beliefs and community         values	1	2	3	4	5
Q2.  CBT will boost local cultural          activities	1	2	3	4	5
Q3.  CBT will weaken community          value systems	1	2	3	4	5
Q4.  CBT will  provide incentives to           locals to preserve local culture	1	2	3	4	5
Q5.  CBT  will cause an increase in the         crime rate	1	2	3	4	5
Q6.   CBT will encourage the          development of heritage tourism          sites	1	2	3	4	5
Q7.   CBT will facilitate positive          cultural exchanges between          residents and  tourists	1	2	3	4	5
Q8.   CBT will encourage foreign          cultural penetration	1	2	3	4	5
Q9    CBT will not affect peace and           tranquility within the community    Q10. CBT will  negatively affect the ecological environment	1     1	2     2	3     3	4     4	5     5

Appendix: J

Variables and Sources for Items in Survey Instrument

Attitudes

Appendix: K

Variables and Sources for Items in Survey Instrument

Expectations

Appendix: L

Variables and Sources for Items in Survey Instrument

                                                       Changes in Local Culture

Appendix: M

Information on Participants

How would you describe your ethnicity? Multiracial                  African American      Native American Indian      Asian American      Latino/Spanish Origin	White American      Asian      African      Other
I am in the age range of      18-20      21-30      31-40	41-50      51-60      >60
What is the highest level of education you have completed?      Less than high school      High school      Tertiary	Some college      College      Graduate
What is your employment?      White-collar worker      Blue-collar worker      Administrator/Manager      Specialist/Freelancer	Self employed      College student      Part-timer      Unemployed/Housewife
What is your annual income?      Under $20, 000.00      $20,000.00 – $39,999.00      $40,000.00 – $59,999.9                $60,000.00 – $79,999.999      $80,000.00 – $99,999.99	$100,000.00 – $149,999.00      $150,000.00 – $199,999.00      Over $200,000.00      I do not want to answer

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