Practices Of Human Resource Management Diversity Of NPCC
Diversity management entails recognizing and valorizing personal differences. Respect and acceptance are the main perceptions of diversity which basically translates to comprehending that every human being is unique, and accepting our individual distinction. Individual differences can be evaluated along various dimensions which include: race, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, gender, political beliefs, religious beliefs, socio-economic status, or physical abilities, among other philosophies (Arredondo, 1996). Examining the aforementioned individual discrepancies in a constructive, safe and fostering milieu is what constitutes diversity. Furthermore, diversity management can be simplified to being indulgent to one another and surpassing the basic tolerance to acknowledging the numerous dimensions of miscellany in every human being rather than conforming to the affirmative action laws approach (Arredondo, 1996). From a United States of America perspective, management diversity is meant to halt or bring to an end to the egalitarianism perceptions such as affirmative action and equal prospects. Nevertheless, individual differences and inherent sequencing amid management of diversity and purportedly prior affirmative and equality action laws may not be efficiently applicable in all the countries in the world (Certo, 2000). For example, the concept of diversity management and equality tend to grow in parallel in the European Union. Moreover, diversity management is often perceived as a tool for enacting institutionalization of equality and/or constructive action legislation in some countries constituting the European Union. For instance, deliberations on management diversity and prejudice intensified concurrently rather than one after another in France (Certo, 2000).
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF PRACTICES OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT DIVERSITY
Recognizing human capital as the core resource in ensuring organizational achievement is the main focus of human resource goals and objectives. Specifically, incorporating human resource leaders in the entire business decision making and the prerogative to exhibit the constructive impacts of investing in human resource constitute the goals and objectives of human resource diversity (Arredondo, 1996). Below is a discussion of human resource management diversity’s various goals and objectives.
Executive Membership
The opportunity to join the top most level of management in an organization is the most subtle and at the same time most sought after human resource objective. The highest levels of administration in an organization include the chief executive, chief information, chief financial and chief operating. Attaining these positions in a diverse work force is the most coveted objective as it places an individual in a position to manage strategies and come up with departmental decision that market an organization’s ability to make profits (Certo, 2000).
Employee Engagement
The other objective of the practices of human resource management diversity is consistent employee engagement. Maintaining a work milieu where the diverse work force is contended irrespective of their individual differences is a top priority objective. To realize this objective, an organization’s management ought to employ strategic planning where an employee gets paid to do what he or she enjoys. This is achieved by recognizing the abilities, beliefs and preferences of individual employees and making sure that they are not violated. This can also be achieved by coordinating promotional opportunities when they arise.
Compliance
Ensuring that an organization’s policies do not clash with the federal or state employment laws is extremely vital in ensuring that employees work in a safe and conducive environment. Putting into consideration the rules governing employment of people in the region of an organization’s operation and bearing in mind the diverse individuality of employees aids greatly in the promoting their delivery. Constant audits also promote diversity in the entire workforce as it proves that an organization has the client and market base at heart (Certo, 2000).
Turnover and Retention
Keeping employees happy, is the most challenging objective of human resource management. This is often quantified by retention and turnover. Viable factors for realizing objectives with regard to turnover and retention include attracting qualified and competent workers, stirring long term dedication and commitment, and encouraging the already recruited work force constantly (Daft, 1994).
Employer of Choice
The last objective of human resource management diversity is coming up with an employer whom most if not every employee is comfortable and happy to work with. The diverse work force posses a challenge in ensuring that each and every employee; irrespective of their individual differences, is comfortable with their immediate employer. To achieve this objective, the organization is required to promote conducive employer-employee relationships, avail benefits packages, provide innovating reimbursement and most important invest in employees (Daft, 1994).
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This research paper entails a comprehensive assessment of the degree in which employees’ perceived management receptivity to diversity management (PRMRD) differ by age, gender, ethnicity and organizational term. The paper also seeks to study the influence of different dimensions of organizational climate for diversity (OCFD) on PRMRD. This paper advances to extensively evaluate the various practices of human resource management diversity in the National Petroleum Construction Company (NPCC) in the United Arab Emirates. The core aspects of diversity discussed include the cultural, cognitive and behavioral diversities in the multi national corporation. The paper goes ahead and outlines the various benefits and challenges associated with management diversity in NPCC. The paper also ventured into a comprehensive discussion on the goals and objectives of management diversity in the contemporary world. Finally this research paper indulged in evaluating the various human resource strategies incorporated by the National Petroleum Construction Company with regard to management diversity.
THE NATIONAL PETROLEUM CONSTRUCTION COMPANY (NPCC), (OVERVIEW)
NPCC was established in 1973 as a Public Joint Stock company at Sadiyat Island which is three kilometers to the East of Abu Dhabi city. The company was established to endow onshore and offshore Oil and Gas production industry with a facility for the manufacture of steel structures. The multi national corporation expanded progressively and in 1978 it managed to set up a custom built pipe coating facility (Drucker, 1974). One year later, NPCC was in a position to supply marine spreads for Pipe lay Installation and Hook-up works which was made possible by the company’s initiative to embark on offshore endeavors for the Oil and Gas industry (Drucker, 1974).
The company embraced the human resource management diversity practices in its management to exploit its employees’ potential and abilities. The diverse work force in the region guaranteed diverse ideas, expertise and experience which availed the company with ample expansion opportunities and maximization of profits. Presently NPCC posses a devoted marine fleet which has thirteen construction barges proficient enough to transport as much as twelve thousand tones, lay submarine pipelines as big as sixty inches in diameter, lift solitary structures as heavy as two thousands six hundred tones, together with hook-up and preservation works (Drucker, 1974).
Numerous consultations among the diverse management team lead to the inception and implementation of another facility within the vicinity of the parent company to manufacture tanks and spheres for storing different petroleum products such as crude oil, liquid sulphur, diesel oil, liquefied natural gas (LNG), water, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and many more, to serve the onshore projects. Embracing management diversity has seen to NPCC’s dynamic growth to the extent of being in league with the major international EPC contractors engaged in the expansion of the Gas and Oil Industry (Drucker, 1974). Currently, the multinational corporation boasts of over three hundred committed engineering oriented staff from across the globe. The work force is equipped with state of the art computer software made available by the company’s employees who trace their roots to Europe and the American continent. This ‘imported’ expertise has greatly aided the company in dealing with engineering challenges.
MISSION OF THE NATIONAL PETROLEUM CONSTRUCTION COMPANY
The multinational corporation is dedicated to identifying the needs for its services in its areas of operation either as an individual entity or in liaison with venture partners. This is meant to fully accomplish and satisfy the requirements of its shareholders, partners and most important the clients. NPCC also targets to diversify its onshore and offshore potential and broaden its region of onshore operation to beyond the United Arab Emirate and to the Gulf region in particular. The other mission of NPCC is to uphold the obligation to its HSE strategy at every level of the company, which requires uniform standards from its entrepreneurial partners, vendors and sub contractors. The company has another mission to endeavor for operational superiority in both the management and implementation of novel initiatives by meticulously introducing the most ideal practices, retaining international values in the quality of work and enhancing productivity. Another mission of the National Petroleum Construction Company is to continue executing the current on work trainings, seminars and workshops to ensure the employees are at par with the ever changing technological innovations. Finally the NPCC has a laid down mission to sustain a gracious attitude and avail the necessary services to the population within its areas or regions of operation (Drucker, 1974).
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the recent past, the government of the United Arab Emirates has put considerable focus on diversity issues. This is because its work force is becoming progressively diverse in terms of race, gender, ethnicity and nationality. Most of the companies operating in UAE, NPCC included, claim that that they have embraced diversity in terms of age, ethnicity, nationality, gender and religion, prompting prioritization of talent management. While the public services in UAE are investing significant resources in establishing and implementing policies that enhance understanding, accord and tolerance, statistics show that altering diversity is greatly dependent on the senior administration’s commitment to, and support for this noble initiative. Nevertheless, little has been done to evaluate how management acts to efficiently manage diversity as perceived by employees (Certo, 2000). This is attributed to lack of valid and reliable measure. Being in a position to discern employee insight of management events is extremely vital since statistics suggest that behaviors are heavily depended on perception irrespective of their accuracy.
It is also evidently clear that perceived management receptivity to management diversity (PMRMD) reasonably differ amid gender and ethnic groups. Nonetheless, the above mentioned deductions have been based on studies conducted in North America and may therefore not be applicable to other nations especially the United Arab Emirates due to discrepancies in management diversity policies among different countries (Certo, 2000). Furthermore, little efforts have been enforced to highlight the factors that influence these differences and also conception of organization climate for diversity (OCFD) have been duly been neglected despite OCFD perception being the major explanatory variable (Certo, 2000). To address the aforementioned limitations of management diversity, this research paper is going to evaluate the level in which PMRMD differ amongst the United Arab Emirates public sector employee. The paper is also going to asses the effects of the newly initiated dimensions of OCFD on PMRMD.
PMRMD refers to employees’ views on the extent in which a particular management support the diversity initiatives. For instance a study of three hundred and twenty eight employees conducted in a United States of America Navy Medical Treatment facility (NMTF) suggests that the minority groups which included the Blacks, Hispanics and the Asian employees complained of the hospital’s management acting contrary to what it purports than did the white workers. Similarly, in another study of five hundred and ten; both supervisory and non supervisory workers, of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the minorities and women complained vehemently of the agency not doing enough in promoting and addressing the diversity issues than did the men and the whites (Arredondo, 1996). Statistics have also proved beyond reasonable doubt that the old have time and again been discriminated in accessing on job training and development opportunities, denied employment opportunities the qualify for, been the first to be selected for redundancy, and have been denied promotions at their places of work than their young counterparts. The above conclusions results to the following theory: The perceived management receptivity to diversity management (PMRMD) differs immensely amid, age, gender, ethnic group and organizational term (Arredondo, 1996).
Organizational climate for diversity (OCFD) refers to the personal, group or organizational conceptions that alter the workers’ conception of management’s accessibility to diversity programmes. Organizational associates are understood to undergo or envisage environment the same way since they work under the same milieu. Nonetheless, an organization has more than one reality and therefore different employees undergo or identify OCFD differently. OCFD is resolute by a number of socio-psychological circumstances and observable facts. For instance, a precise value for diversity amongst an organizational crew is one of the most important constituent of organizational environment. Findings from already conducted studies conclude that conceptions of OFCD vary with the degree in which members of an organization assess diversity (Arredondo, 1996). The other constituent of an organizational setting is the degree of comfort, with candidness, to diversity amongst members of the organization. Studies on social classification and the similarity-attraction hypothesis reveal that people interact freely with members of their own group than they do with members from a different group. This is because groups enhance communication, develop predictability of an individual’s actions and most important cultivates trust and reciprocity (Arredondo, 1996). For instance studies suggest that people from different gender, age or race are not always at ease with one another. It has also been suggested that the majority group members often avoid the members of the minority group to eliminate chances of being termed as prejudiced when the two groups are involved together in a venture (Arredondo, 1996). Apparent evenhandedness of human resource management strategies and practices forms another vital constituent in organizational environment. Despite the numerous efforts made to do away with discrimination in the work force, most organizations do not implement equal opportunity legislation (Klarsfeld, 2010). It is unfortunate that there has been discrimination in almost all levels of an organization. This is evidenced in the recruitment, career enhancement and promotions processes (Klarsfeld, 2010). For instance an analysis of over seventy studies by Kraiger and Ford (1985) demonstrated that black workers are down rated on job performance in comparison to their white counterparts especially when a white is doing the rating (Klarsfeld, 2010). Consequent research also concluded that blacks are often awarded least evaluations and scores on both subjective and objective procedures compared to the whites. Recent studies confirmed the existence of racial bias in supervisory ratings (Klarsfeld, 2010). Novel studies demonstrate that women and the ethnic minority have on various occasions been shielded against attaining the highest levels of management. Their career advancement rates have also been comparatively slower than men and white counterparts (Klarsfeld, 2010). Studies also indicate that promotion rates for the whites in NPCC have been much more elevated than the minority groups as their recommendations for promotion are higher and they are perceived to be better leaders which are not always true. A closer look at the gender discrepancies also reveal that women are rarely promoted compared to their male colleagues in spite of them having been employed at the same time. In academics, studies established that a substantial percentage of men get appointed to higher levels of academia positions compared to women are mostly appointed to lower levels or on casual or short term contracts despite their academic achievements (Klarsfeld, 2010). Similarly, studies indicate that minorities in NPCC are accorded less on work trainings, seminars and workshop to enhance their opportunities for more responsibilities and consequent promotions at their work place. Research also indicates that in the United Arab Emirates both public and private sector manager trainings are done basing on gender. In particular, women in the NPCC are accorded less motivation and trainings despite their rich work experience (Klarsfeld, 2010). The less frequent trainings they get are insignificant in enhancing their career. View point of management events that influence the inclusion or exclusion of the disadvantaged groups is the final element organizational milieu this paper is going to discuss. It is unfortunate that very many chronological underprivileged groups are still being excluded or marginalized in various social backgrounds because of their demographic characteristics. For example researches on structural affiliation patterns reveal that individuals struggle to attain similarity in identity or organizational relationships with the people they interrelate within their career associations or social networks. Consequently, men have time and again employed or sustained their “old boys’ associations” to bar women from unofficial associations in order to retain dominance in their organizations. Therefore, women’s advancement into leadership within an organization is greatly hindered by the upholding the “old boys’ affiliations” (Wrench, 2007). Although various studies indicate that the minorities view themselves as being partly or fully separated from either official or unofficial features of the corporate life, others confirmed that women are on many occasions barred from the unofficial affiliations hindering their acquisition of vital information or decision making associations in the organization (Wrench, 2007). This is aimed at ensuring that they do not get the much needed know how on managerial issues and that they do not actively participate in organizational endeavors. Studies also indicate that in a culturally diverse environment, organizational crew often undergoes diversity oriented interrelation intricacy. This is because people with sundry locale differ in perception, judgment or viewpoints. In most cases, minorities or women’s ideas are disregarded and are only enacted when revisited by a member of the majority group. This makes members of the minority group unenthusiastic to voice their novel views or they become reluctant to indulge themselves in initiatives that demand deliberations of ideas from diverse ethnic or gender stance (Wrench, 2007). Diverse stance, values, linguistic cues or beliefs have the potential to result in misapprehensions and consequently communication breakdown. Moreover, ethnic minorities and women may deduce that they are treated unfairly as opposed to their colleagues. Such perceptions, if not corrected have the capability of upsetting the cohesiveness of workgroups. As a result, probable interrelation difficulties such as understanding; elucidation that either confirms or alters the content or purpose of communication, treatment; disparity compassion aimed at an individual via judgment or communication, cohesiveness; the extent to which group associates are attracted to one another, and ideation; expression of various perspectives and ideas within a group, are also extremely vital constituents of organizational environment (Wrench, 2007) . Consequently, the contemporary study views the aforementioned constituents as being extremely vital elements of organizational climate for diversity (OCFD). Presently, there is no research that relates the elements of OCFD and PMRMD. Nevertheless, results of numerous studies together with the notion that OCFD could provide the major expounding variable, necessitated the conception of the following theory: Views of organizational climate for diversity which includes: value, fairness, treatment, comfort, cohesiveness, understanding, inclusion and ideation, will envisage perceived management receptivity to diversity management (Wrench, 2007). REASERCH METHODOLOGY This study is perceived to have been conducted in one of the most prominent multinational corporation in the United Arab Emirates called the National Petroleum Construction Company (NPCC). Before execution, the original questionnaire was pilot tested with fifty NPCC employees with its response collected and combined by the multinational corporation (Klarsfeld, 2010). The following is the final copy of the questionnaire employed to collect information regarding the study. Scale Items (Tick where applicable) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Slightly Disagree Slightly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree I have a say in the decisions taken by my work group concerning our tasks 1 2 3 4 5 6 My colleagues in the group share work-related information with me freely. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am usually involved and invited to actively take part in work-related events of my work group 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am always in a position to influence decisions that affect my organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am typically among the last to know about vital alterations in the organization. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am normally invited to important meetings that discuss crucial matters pertaining my organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 My supervisor often consults me before making vital decisions that affect our company 1 2 3 4 5 6 My supervisor has never shared information concerning the organization with me 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am often invited to actively take part in review and evaluation meetings with my supervisor 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am often given the opportunity to give my opinion in meetings with management higher than my immediate supervisor. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I frequently receive communication from management higher than my immediate supervisor like email, & memos 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am often invited to participate in meetings with management higher than my immediate supervisor. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am often asked to contribute in planning social activities not directly related to my job function. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am always informed about informal social activities and company social events. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am rarely invited to join my coworkers when they go out for lunch or drinks after work. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONSE TO THE QUESTIONNAIREQUESTIONNUMBERRESPONSETOTAL Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Slightly Disagree Slightly Agree Moderately Agree QUESTION ONE 215 264 657 897 1,098 3,131 QUESTION TWO 187 213 723 1,050 1,278 3,451 QUESTION THREE 205 139 871 1,198 1,400 3,813 QUESTION FOUR 1,200 965 899 745 474 4,283 QUESTION FIVE 342 477 984 1,134 1,352 4,289 QUESTION SIX 893 1,207 1,065 731 142 4,038 QUESTION SEVEN 1,092 1,187 873 409 398 3,959 QUESTION EIGHT 289 678 943 1,373 1,085 5,453 QUESTION NINE 623 1,067 1,000 819 674 4,183 QUESTION TEN 845 1,298 1,030 653 423 4,249 QUESTION ELEVEN 876 1,191 954 897 314 4,232 QUESTION TWELVE 1,043 1,190 874 953 431 4,491 QUESTION THIRTEEN 654 985 1,098 1,143 582 4,462 QUESTION FOURTEEN 854 1,023 872 973 631 4,353 QUESTION FIFTEEN 396 786 1,054 1,165 543 3,944 From the above table it is apparent that employees tend to be loyal to their groups; race, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, gender, political beliefs, religious beliefs or socio-economic status than the overall workforce of the organization. They tend to work in accordance with group affiliation rather than organizational policies. This has and will be a major challenge in embracing management diversity. RESULTSPrecursor and outcome variables The table below shows the potency and course of the linear correlation amid PMRDM and the projected predictor variable which include the following: gender, organizational term, ethnicity, status and age. An evaluation of the above correlations indicated that out of thirteen predictor variables it is only gender, age, ethnicity and status that have no substantial relationship with PMRDM (Klarsfeld, 2010). A number of these relationships were of medium strength, indicating that the correlations were vital. However, extremely strong correlations (r > 0.8) could not be ascertained. Descriptive Statistics of Projected Predictors with their Relationships with PMRDMNo.VariablesMeansSDPMRDM 1. Ethnicity N/A N/A 0.08 2. Gender N/A N/A 0.04 3. Age N/A N/A -0.08 4. Status N/A N/A -0.08 5. Organizational term N/A N/A -0.12 6. Comfort 5.68 0.97 0.23 7. Value 5.60 0.82 -0.14 8. Ideation 5.47 1.05 -0.45 9. Cohesiveness 5.29 1.20 0.45 10. Fairness 4.96 1.26 0.68 11. understanding 4.39 1.24 -0.46 12. Inclusion 4.28 1.20 0.60 13. Treatment 4.46 1.26 -0.68 Regression Analysis For the purpose of determining the most ideal predictors for PMRDM, individual characteristics which include: gender, status, ethnicity, organizational term, age, and the other dimensions of OCFD, were regressed with PMRDM. Results as shown in the table below indicated that it is only status, fairness, inclusion and treatment, variables that had substantial association with PMRDM. The findings therefore concurred with the previous studies which had concluded that the discernment of OCFD is the main expounding variables of PMRDM (Klarsfeld, 2010). Regression Analysis of the predictors of PMRDMVariablePMRDMBetat Inclusion 0.32 8.939 Fairness 0.31 6.525 Status -0.08 -2.436 Treatment -0.30 -5.599 CONCLUSION From the findings of this research paper, it is safe to conclude that it is only organizational term that differs with PMRDM. Workers with employment contract of less than one year view management as being amenable to diversity management than their counterparts with employment contracts of six years and above. Moreover, out of the thirteen predictor variables, it is only status, inclusion, fairness and treatment that predict PMRDM. This clarifies the 63% of the variance in PMRDM (Klarsfeld, 2010). References Arredondo, P. (1996). Successful diversity management initiatives: A blueprint for planning and implementation. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Certo, S. C. (2000). Modern management: Diversity, quality, ethics & the global environment. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall. Daft, R. L. (1994). Management. Fort Worth: Dryden Press. Drucker, P. F. (1974). Management: Tasks, responsibilities, practices. New York: Harper & Row. Klarsfeld, A. (2010). International handbook on diversity management at work: Country perspectives on diversity and equal treatment. Cheltenham, Glos, UK: Edward Elgar. Stockdale, M. S., & Crosby, F. J. (2004). The psychology and management of workplace diversity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. Wrench, J. (2007). Diversity management and discrimination: Immigrants and ethnic minorities in the EU. Aldershot, England: Ashgate.
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“What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to today’s American family?”
Goldsmith, E. B., & GOLDSMITH, E. B. (2003). Resource Management. In J. J. Ponzetti Jr. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of marriage and family (2nd ed.). Farmington, MI: Gale. Retrieved from
What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to today’s American family?
Resource management is the process in which individuals and families use what they have to get what they want. It begins with thinking and planning and ends with the evaluation of actions taken. Three fundamental concepts in resource management are values, goals, and decision making. Values such as honesty and trust are principles that guide behavior. They are desirable or important and serve as underlying motivators. Values determine goals, which are sought-after end results. Goals can be implicit or explicit. They can be short-term, intermediate-, or long-term. Decisions are conclusions or judgments about some issue or matter. Decision making involves choosing between two or more alternatives and follows a series of steps from inception to evaluation.
Through choices, individuals and families define their lives and influence the lives of others. The study of resource management focuses on order, choices, and control, and how people use time, energy, money, physical space, and information. As an applied social science, it is an academic field that is fundamental to our understanding of human behavior. “The knowledge obtained through the study of management is evaluated in light of its ability to make an individual’s or family’s management practice more effective” (Goldsmith 2000, p. 5).
Individuals and families have characteristic ways of making decisions and acting called their management style. Although similar styles are exhibited within families (such as a tendency to be on time or to finish tasks to completion), there are also wide ranges of styles within families making the study of management intrinsically interesting, especially from a socialization point of view. Why do such differences exist and how does the individual’s style mesh with that of the other members’ styles in the family?
Measuring devices, techniques, or instruments that are used to make decisions and plan courses of action are called management tools. For example, time is a resource and a clock or stopwatch is a management tool.
Resources can be divided up into human and material resources, assets that people have at their disposal. Material resources (e.g., bridges, roads, houses) decline through use whereas human resources (e.g., the ability to read, ride a bicycle) improve or increase through use. Human capital describes the sum total of a person’s abilities, knowledge, and skills. Education is one way to develop human capital. Related to this is the concept of social capital. The term social capital is gaining in importance in the family-relations field and management is considered part of a person’s or family’s social capital. As a dynamic concept social capital can be considered a resource imbedded in the relationships among people that individuals, groups, and communities create, in which they invest, and which can be used to provide or develop resources or facilitate social and personal well being (Bubolz 2002).
Conceptual Framework and History
Resource management has a long history and an interdisciplinary base borrowing from and contributing to such fields as economics, organizational behavior, anthropology, psychology, and sociology. The discipline was originally called home management—with an emphasis on work simplification and household efficiency—but since the postmodern period (beginning in the 1960s) the emphasis has been on viewing the family as a social system and resource management as one of the many functions of that system (Knoll 1963; Maloch and Deacon 1966; McGregor 2001). In recent years the most widely used term to describe the field is family resource management or more simply management, which will be a term used in the remainder of the entry. Although the family is recognized as the fundamental societal unit, it is recognized that management principles and techniques apply to singles as well as to families. Attention is also paid to the management styles and situations of different types of families besides the traditional two-parents-and-children configuration.
Management research studies are conducted worldwide and results are reported in journals and at conferences. Family functioning, time, and stress are common themes. For example, data-based studies have found that family resources play a critical role in the healthy family functioning of Korean immigrant families in the United States (Lee 2000). Multinational papers presented at the 1998 International Household and Family Research Conference held in Helsinki, Finland reinforced the importance of family resource management to the well-being of families including the pursuit of the ideal life (Turkki 1999; Fujimoto and Aoki 1999).
Several theories, most importantly systems and economic theories, influence the way management is taught, practiced, and studied. According to Deacon and Firebaugh (1988), the family’s values, demands and resources are defined as inputs to the system. A leading management theorist in the twentieth century, Beatrice Paolucci, was especially interested in how family systems interact with their various near and far environments, which is termed the human ecological approach. Paolucci along with her coauthors Nancy Axinn and Olive Hall wrote:
Things need not just happen in a family; they can be decided. The responsibility and the burden of choice are a particular attribute of humanness. The quality of human life and the prospect of the family’s continued survival within limited environmental settings depends, in large measure, on the decisions made in daily family living (1977, p. 1).
For a history of her life and contributions to family resource management see Beatrice Paolucci: Shaping Destiny through Everyday Life (Bubolz et al. 2002). Economic theory assumes that people seek to maximize their satisfaction through the decisions that they make. In economics, individuals are seen as rational and acquisitive. Management recognizes that although individuals want to increase satisfaction, they often behave in nonoptimizing, less than rational ways. Unexpected events or reactions to events may require adjustments to plans and actions.
Family resource management differs from the way management is taught in business schools. In colleges of business, the application is mostly to employer/employee relationships in nonprofit and for-profit organizations. The fields are alike in that both are concerned with productivity and decision making but in family resource management the examples are more likely to be of a personal, home-based, or family nature. However, it should be pointed out that there are several cross-over topics such as time management and balancing work and family life and cross-field collaborations are common.
Practical Applications and a Model of Managerial Action
Because management explores the workings of everyday life, it is both complex and practical. To show the interaction of various management components, a model of managerial action using the systems approach is given in Figure 1.
In the model, for example, demands and values lead to planning and the use of resources ending with met demands, achieved goals, and feedback. In Africa, where many regions suffer from drought and food shortages, individuals and families have to plan wisely and use resources well in order to incrase their chances of survival. In management, wants and needs are differentiated from goals. Wants are specific and temporary, such as craving a certain food. Needs range from basic physiological needs to self-actualization (Maslow 1954). Within a family there can be conflicting needs. People arrive at their needs through a complex subjective assessment based on their inherent motivations and their perceptions of the external world (Foxall, Goldsmith, and Brown 1998). In today’s fast-paced world, filled with competing demands, people do not have the time to carefully assess their needs or to plan effectively.
Situational factors, personality traits, and motivational forces affect plans. Individuals and families set standards within the context of existing demands and resource availability. Standards develop over time. People live in the present, but they are thinking about the future and developing plans based on their values and standards. “Planning is a thinking and information-gathering process involving a series of decisions. It is a process because formulating plans requires several steps, such as information gathering, sorting, and prioritizing; then, based on this information, the planner must decide which plan is most likely to succeed” (Goldsmith 2000, p. 125). Plans have purpose; they are taking the planner somewhere. To succeed, plans should be clear, flexible, appropriate, and goal-directed. People have primary plans and back-up plans. Implementing refers to putting plans into action. Evaluation is the end process of looking back, checking over, examining past decisions and actions and determining how they worked. Goal achievement should provide satisfaction.
Time, Work, Family, and Stress
Time use and the direction of human effort are integral to the study of management. Queen Elizabeth I said on her deathbed, “All my possessions for a moment of time.” Time is generally considered the ultimate resource because it is a resource all people, rich or poor, share. In the discipline in the past there was debate about whether time is a “true” resource (Winter 1995).
As the Queen Elizabeth I quote shows we all share time but it is finite. Therefore, a critical management question is how do we make the best use of the time that we do have. One answer is through conscious control. In management studies, a person is trained to ask when confronted with competing activities, “What is the best use of my time right now?” Another question to ask is “Is the activity I am about to undertake consistent with my goals?” These questions address both quantitative time (measured units of time such as minutes and hours) and qualitative time (feelings about how time is spent). Time perceptions vary widely by individual and by culture. For example, being on time in most North American cultures means five or ten minutes before the agreed upon time or being right on time. In other cultures, being an hour late may still be regarded as being on time. Discretionary time is free time one can use any way one wants. Nondiscretionary time is programmed by others or set by schedules and appointments. Everyday life is a combination of both. Stress is often caused by not having enough discretionary time. Over-programmed time is a problem for children as well as adults.
Few people are immune from the difficulties of trying to balance work and family life. Most controversy centers around managing hours and responsibilities, but it is also about one’s priorities. Which is more important: work or family? When someone is asked to work overtime, this question becomes apparent. In workaholism, work is the most pleasurable part of life and family or personal life takes a back seat. On the other hand, procrastination is the postponement of work usually in favor of more pleasurable parts of family or personal life.
With improvements in technology, there has been a blurring of work and family roles and often less lag time. Email, cellular telephones, automatic teller machines, and the Internet have accelerated everyday life and have made people, information, and services more accessible. Work and family lives are becoming increasingly blurred and even may share the same physical space as one considers the growth in the number of home-based businesses.
The twenty-first century will be characterized by more family transformation and stress (McCubbin et al. 1997). Because the purpose of management is not only to describe problems, but also to present solutions, distress and fatigue are subjects of discussion in terms of what can be done to lessen them. Regarding getting more sleep, James Maas (1998) suggests getting an adequate amount of sleep every night, establishing a regular sleep schedule, getting continuous sleep, and making up for lost sleep. Another solution is the reestablishment of routines such as regular mealtimes as a way to simplify life. The simplification process may involve other steps such as pulling back on spending and building up more savings to provide for more leisure time in the future (Goldsmith 2001).
Family resource specialists strive to reach a stage called managerial judgment, defined as the ability to accept and work with change for the betterment of self and humankind. The ultimate goal of the management expert is the creation of a better tomorrow.
Conclusion
More could be said about managing human effort, environmental resources, and financial resources. This entry briefly touches the surface of a more than century-old discipline that affects every aspect of daily life. What management does is provide a framework, a way of looking at things that can be applied to a variety of situations. It is about life not just happening but happening in an orderly way. Humans are constantly seeking answers, making plans, and pursuing goals that bring desired results. Management provides insight into how this occurs. It is both simple and complex. Each day presents new challenges, new questions about how life should be and can be. Individuals are continually confronted with decisions to be made given scarce resources. This entry has endeavored to show the basics of the discipline and its application to everyday life. The greatest future challenge for the field will be the continued integration of management with other theories to address socially relevant issues as life becomes more complex and diverse.
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· Bubolz, M.; Axinn, N.; Mitsifer, D.; Nelson, L.; Wenberg, B. (2002). Beatrice Paolucci: Shaping Destiny through Everyday Life.Michigan State University East Lansing.
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· Goldsmith, E. (2000). Resource Management for Individuals and Families, 2nd edition. Wadsworth Belmont, CA.
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· Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. Harper and Row New York.
· McCubbin, H.; McCubbin, M.; Thompson, A.; Hans, S.; Allen, C. (1997). “Families Under Stress: What Makes Them Resilient?”Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences 2-11.
· McGregor, S. (2001). Modernism and Post-Modernism Compared. Working paper. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Mt. St. Vincent University.
· Paolucci, B.; Hall, O.; Axinn, N. (1977). Family Decision Making: An Ecosystem Approach. Wiley New York.
· Turkki, K., ed. (1999). In New Approaches to the Study of Everyday Life: Proceedings of the International Household and Family Research Conference, May 31-June 3, 1998, Helsinki, Finland.
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Goldsmith, E. B., & GOLDSMITH, E. B. (2003). Resource Management. In J. J. Ponzetti Jr. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of marriage and family (2nd ed.). Farmington, MI: Gale. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/galemarriage/resource_management/0?institutionId=8703
The second edition of the International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family revises and expands Macmillan’s 1995 Encyclopedia of Marriage and the Family, adopting an international, cross-cultural approach to such diverse topics as adolescent parenthood, family planning, cohabitation, widowhood, domestic violence, child abuse and neglect, codependency and commuter marriages. It includes articles specific to countries and to religious traditions, examining the history of family life within these cultures and discussing how families have been affected by political and social change.
Editor(s): James J. Ponzetti Jr.Edition: 2ndArticles: 420Images: 1People: 31
Despite the challenges facing families across time, the family remains the world’s oldest form of relationship, a universal phenomenon (Sokalski, 1994). For centuries, families have been organized as a basic unit of society. This social unit has continued to be maintained over time, and, until recently, the family unit was generally considered to be a private institution. The contemporary family is now, more than ever before, a political entity. Family values are emerging in campaign slogans, drawing increased attention to the importance of family units within the social framework of communities, locally, nationally, and globally. This surge of interest in the family unit has resulted in increased research, expanding our knowledge base of family functions and evolution over time.
Although family life does give individuals a strong sense of continuity, Skolnick and Skolnick (2005) call attention to the fact that the family is in transition. Emerging communications and technology capabilities have accelerated this transition. Families of the future will not only need to be aware of changes that are taking place, but they will also need the skills to adapt resource management to fit new realities.
Paralleling the changing social, political, and economic climates surrounding families are changes in the structure of families. Coontz (2000) points out that favored traditional family structures carry privilege, whereas Doherty (1997) speculates that, as a result of environmental changes, our current society may be the first in history that cannot clearly define the family. These complexities necessitate the need for ongoing education and evaluation about the ways families function.
The key concepts of family resource management include an interdependency of individuals, a dynamic environment, and a conscious effort to meet basic needs for all individuals within the family unit. Managing family resources has always been a process, requiring individuals to recognize that effective decisions cannot be made quickly and that the evaluation of those decisions is essential for future decisions.
Families cannot effectively manage resources without an awareness of their opportunities as well as a consideration of their limitations. They need to be aware that living in the 21st century presents numerous challenges to the family. Families will continue to consume large amounts of resources, be engaged in the global economy, and provide safety and security for its members. Each of these functions requires management. Thus, the concept of family resource management is imbedded in those three individual words: family, resource, and management.
WHAT IS A FAMILY?
Contemporary families are diverse in nature, reflecting the socioeconomic environments surrounding them. The idea that a traditional family exists, from which students can compare and contrast other nontraditional family units, is nonproductive to the goals and objectives of family service providers. It is necessary, however, to categorize and define families when public and private programs assess needs and determine qualified services for citizens based on that designation. Chapter 2 presents a framework for understanding contemporary family definitions and structures.
Joe and Rocia have three children. Joe recently lost his job. To qualify for financial assistance through various local and state programs, they must meet the criteria of those programs in terms of how a family is defined. Some programs may only be available to them if they are legally married. Other assistance programs may provide more resources if Rocia is unmarried. These discrepancies challenge ethical decision making and may result in a weakening of family structure. Some assistance may be available based on their household status regardless of whether they share a home. If Joe is not the biological father of the children, his assistance may only be based on what is deemed necessary for a single male.
In terms of family resource management, it is assumed that families are units where members strive to meet the needs of all members while maintaining that family unit over a period of time. Thus, families have both individual and group needs. Identification and communication of these needs are continual. To satisfy these needs, resources must be identified and secured. Money and material possessions are easiest to identify as important family resources; however, the human resources available among all family members are just as important, if not even more essential, to the family’s survival and maintenance.
The processes of identifying needs and securing resources are dynamic within a family unit. Situations arise in frequent, repetitive ways that allow many decisions to become subconscious and almost habitual. Family members shopping for a weekly supply of groceries may cruise down the store aisles identifying and purchasing an assortment of products with little deliberation. These products have been identified through previous decision-making processes; until family members decide that these basic products are no longer meeting their needs, they are habitual purchases. Other situations require more deliberation and information seeking. The working parent who is confronted on Monday morning with an ill childcare provider must find a specific resource to meet an acute need. The stress level in this type of decision is much higher because this decision impacts the family unit on multiple levels.
HOW DO FAMILIES USE RESOURCES?
Humans consume and require massive amounts of resources for survival, physical growth, and personal growth. Basic needs such as food, water, shelter, and clothing are obvious. Other resources are necessary to facilitate education, community, and recreation. The study of family resource management considers both consumption of resources and the availability/expenditure of human resources by family members.
The identification of resources to meet specific needs is guided by culture, availability, and accessibility. Tap water quenches thirst, yet an individual may choose to buy bottled water for family drinking purposes. A single-family detached house may be preferred, but if apartments are the only choice available, a family may make do until other options surface. An Ivy League college may be a student’s choice, but if he or she does not meet the requirements for admission, another selection must be made.
As families identify needs, their focus turns to finding ways to fulfill those needs. The number of possible solutions will vary depending on the particular need. These solutions, however, always require resources. The larger the pool of resources, the higher the probability that needs will be met efficiently and effectively. In managing family resources, sufficiency is also an important consideration. Will family members accept a solution that just meets their minimum expectations? Old newspapers suffice for bathroom use, but not everyone would accept this choice. Because family needs are dynamic and ongoing, any one particular resource may prove useful on some occasions, but not even be considered at other times.
Families may substitute some resources for others depending on the situational variables. Lunch may consist of a peanut butter sandwich when time is limited but may be a multicourse feast when time is not an issue. Money is often substituted for time in resource selection. Fast food, airline travel, and lawn-care services are examples of this resource transfer or exchange. The complexity of individuals and families elevates the complexity of resource identification and selection when compared to resource management in the business setting.
IN THE NEWS Boomerang Commuters
In April 2011, FoxNewsInsider coined the phrase “Boomerang Commuters” to describe the growing trend of two-career, two-households, two-city family units. Creamer (2011) reported on this dramatic rise of commuter marriages in The Sacramento Bee.Current statistics suggest that almost three million American couples fit the definition of commuter couple: “Men and women in dual-career marriages who desire to stay married, but also voluntarily choose to pursue careers to which they feel a strong commitment. They establish separate homes so they can do so” (Rhodes, 2002).
Why has the number of commuter couples risen from around half a million couples in 1980 to this new high? Some believe that the economy has driven many couples to split to find jobs as the unemployment rates rose in the recent past. Others suggest that it may be more a sign of the rise of working women. Rates are higher among professional, academic and white-collar workers than in lower socioeconomic circles. In the past, the poor in society have endured long separations to find work. The new commuters, however, seem to be a phenomenon of education and relative privilege (Creamer, 2011). The average age of commuting spouses is 51, and the average length of marriage for commuting couples is 22 years (Bergen, 2010).
Marriages, and families within these commuter arrangements, face complex and unusual challenges in family resource management. While it may facilitate financial resource acquisition, separation and maintenance of multiple living sites can be mentally and physically demanding. The demographics of this group indicate that very young children are not part of the mix, but this age group is part of the “sandwich generation,” serving as support for their young adult children and their aging parents.
Weisser (2006) suggests three strategies to help commuter couples swing the dual reality. First, tap into any support employers might provide. Some may provide expense accounts for travel, meals, housing, and utilities to employees. If Internet access is crucial to job performance, the company may provide an allowance to the employee for such service. Second, use all relevant mileage plans—flights, car rentals, hotel charges, restaurants. Finally, be diligent when managing the finances within these living arrangements. Don’t forget to keep long-range financial plans in the picture.
MANAGING FAMILIES
The history of family sciences is closely linked to that of business management. Both fields emerged in academia at about the same time, and both began with efforts to facilitate efficient and effective use of resources. Many of the management theories applied to individual and family resource management stem from business management. Many of the human resource theories are supported by research in family science and other social sciences. Business management focuses on planning, organizing, leading, and controlling the use of resources to accomplish performance goals. The goal of any business is the maximization of this process. It is a conscious effort and a constant process. Choices must be made and evaluated continually.
Although the family is not a business, it does have many of the same goals that a business addresses. Management theories are explored from both the business and family conceptual frameworks in Chapter 3. Business decisions generally have a stronger hierarchical base and more tangible factors available in the decision-making process. Most family management activity begins with that same decision-making process, but family management exists on a higher personal level with more emotional, intangible types of factors to consider. The decision-making process is a major concept addressed and explored throughout this text.
THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
There are many ways that individuals and families go about making decisions. Janis (1989) proposes the rational model, presuming that, in the process of making decisions, there are purposeful goals and objectives. Rational decision making involves searching for alternatives, assessing consequences, estimating risk or uncertainty, determining the value of consequences, and selecting the action that maximizes attainment of those desired objectives. Decisions that have long-lasting impact on a family unit would benefit from this type of structure. Selection of educational programs and disease treatment options are often approached within this type of framework.
Pfeffer (1987) proposes another model that draws from rules, procedures, and processes, rather than the effort to maximize values. The bureaucratic model relies on habitual ways of doing things and is appropriate only for low-risk and uncontested decision situations. Although this model is more appropriate for business decisions, there are some frequent, low-risk decisions that must be made by families. Grocery shopping, especially for staple items, often operates this way.
The political model of decision making (Pfeffer, 1987) produces outcomes that are related to the power of individuals within the group. This model recognizes that individuals within the unit may have differing interests and acknowledges that conflict is normal or at least customary. Although decisions made within this model are seldom perfect for all members, the acts of bargaining and compromising result in member support for the final decision. Decisions specific to family relocation are often reached using this approach. Although children are greatly affected by such moves, it is generally more of a negotiation among the adults where power becomes a crucial influence.
Photo 1.1 Technology enhances a family’s search for alternatives.
Realizing that family decision making may be served by any, all, or a combination of these basic models, it is necessary to create a flexible framework for analysis of a variety of individual situations. The five-step decision-making process is the framework chosen for this text. Although family decisions are not always methodical, they follow a general framework of need identification and clarification, identification of alternative resources available, analysis and comparison of those resources, selection and implementation of resources chosen, and post-implementation evaluation. This model also gives the family the tools for rational, bureaucratic, or political thought found in the other decision-making models. By analyzing these steps separately and then synthesizing them as a process, the learner can more fully understand the complexity and occasional unpredictability of family choices and behaviors.
The Decision-Making Process
· Recognize existing need(s)
· Identify alternatives to fulfill identified needs
· Evaluate identified alternatives
· Select and implement alternatives
· Reflect and evaluate alternative selected
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES IN FAMILY RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Families do not exist in a vacuum. Outside influences come into the family environment to change the way the family thinks and behaves. These influences come from history, culture, and the environment.
Historical Influences
Throughout history, there have been ideas and circumstances that have influenced the way families manage their resources. New ideologies and ways of thinking have impacted existing family behaviors. New childcare practices, new medical discoveries, and even changing marriage expectations may alter the way a family carries out its functions. Historical events also influence the family. Wars, recessions or depressions, terrorist attacks, and other events all have an impact on families. The most recent national recession and global financial crises have illuminated the vulnerability and the strengths of contemporary family structures in times of economic difficulties. The ultimate impact of unemployment on a dual-earner family unit has been very different than that experienced in earlier recessions where the sole-paycheck adult may have lost all earning potential. Families change as history evolves, reflecting and impacting the larger economic environment.
The history of family resource management has influenced the way a family manages today. The early Greek and Roman cultures left a wealth of information about family management that can be found in the writings of the ancient philosophers. The word economy comes from the ancient Greek oikos nomos, which means house and management. Hesiod (CA. 715 BCE) wrote, “You should embrace work-tasks in their due order, so that your granaries [grain storage] may be full of substance in its season” (Hesiod, 1999). The 13th century Church of England also left a legacy of instruction for management. As the church experienced a reform movement, more clergy were encouraged to speak out on marriage and family issues (Murray, 1987). One of the earliest recorded writings was by Robert Grossesteste, Bishop of Lincoln. This was written for his friend, Countess Margaret of Lincoln, after the death of her husband to help her manage his vast estate. He wrote,
And with the money from your corn, from your rents, and from the issues of pleas in your courts, and from your stock, arrange the expenses of your kitchen and your wines and your wardrobe and the wages of servants, and subtract your stock.” (Henley, Lamond, Cunningham, & Grosseteste, 1890)
In contemporary terms, he was suggesting how this new widow might balance her budget—income and expenses.
By the end of the 20th century, the world was changing at a rapid pace. Social mobility and invention would change the way many families managed. Although the Western family was still patriarchal, the Industrial Revolution forced men and women to move into different spheres of influence. Men gave their energies to their work, now outside the home, whereas women gained more power over the household. Isabella Beeton’s Book of Household Management (cited in Hughes, 2006) sold thousands of copies in England. Her ideas have been compared to modern small business management techniques. According to Mrs. Beeton, good management included setting an example for and giving clear guidance to the staff, controlling the finances, and applying the benefits of order and method in all management activities (Wensley, 1996).
In the United States, another reference during this time was Beecher’s (1869) The American Woman’s Home. This volume was written as a training manual for women in the duties of the home in the same fashion as training for other trades at that time. According to Beecher, a woman’s profession included
care and nursing of the body in the critical periods of infancy and sickness, the training of the human mind in the most impressionable period of childhood, the instruction and control of servants, and most of the government and economies of the family state. (p. 14)
The influences of science (ecology and biology) and technology (invention) in the home precipitated the Lake Placid Conferences in 1899 and 1909. The discipline of home economics or domestic science was developed as a result of these conferences.
Since the early 1900s, many changes have taken place in living conditions, equipment, and values and standards. During this time, the development of management also changed. The way in which today’s egalitarian family acquires and uses resources is radically different than in previous decades.
Environmental Influences
The resources that are available for use also influence family management. Some families may have a limited amount of resources available because of their geographic location or economic status. The needs of a family may not be met because necessary resources are not available. In other cases, if a resource is limited, the family may have to pay more to get that resource than if it were plentiful. The availability and accessibility of resources greatly influence how they are used. These factors also influence how resources are managed. More discussion about how resources influence family management can be found in Unit III.
REALITY CHECK
When Uncle Sam Calls
What impact does military deployment of a parent have on a family? The United States has fought many wars in the past, but the most recent efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan have disrupted families in ways that were not typical in past deployments. The majority of soldiers did not come through a draft of young men. In the Vietnam and Korean Wars, the average soldier spent less than a year overseas and was a young recruit or draftee. In Iraq, much of the burden has fallen on older reservists, National Guardsmen—family men and women (Skipp, Ephron, & Hastings, 2006). As the recent war winds down and deployed family members return home, the Arrendos’ experience will be common across the nation.
Photo 1.2 Family members serving in the military leave more than emotional voids behind them.
The Arrendos (name changed for privacy) agreed to share their experience with our readers. Kathy and Mike were young professionals with two small children, ages 2 and 3, when Mike was called to duty. Kathy shares how her needs and resources changed during the course of her husband’s absence. Payne’s (1998) five resource categorizations are used as a framework for understanding.
Financial Resources
My husband’s income increased through deployment. He made more money as a major than he was making as a civilian. Our expenses changed, also, with his absence. He was not spending money and was no longer part of the budget for food, clothing, gasoline, and entertainment. I continued to work, and with both of our incomes and this decreased spending, we were able to accumulate a large savings account.
This situation is much different than in previous wars, when young men entered the service at much lower pay rates and, if married, their wives were usually not professional, career women, so money was often tight for those military families. Kathy shared her discomfort initially in this situation.
I met many military wives in a support group. They were in similar economic situations and their spending was unbelievable. I think I tried hard not to increase spending with our savings goal in mind. Some spending, I believe, is tied to emotions. When I was feeling angry about our situation, I spent money. As the savings account grew, I relaxed a little and spent a little more on myself—haircuts, dining out, clothing, and makeup. Other wives were remodeling their entire homes, buying new homes, and getting new vehicles. When my husband returned, we went on a bit of a spending spree, and we don’t feel the same financial pressures we did before we accumulated the savings account.
Not all military families experience such increased financial resources. However, without the draft, enlistment demands have changed the level of incentives currently offered.
Emotional Resources
Initially, I couldn’t focus or concentrate. How am I going to be a single parent? We always did everything together! When he left, it was almost easier because the anticipation of his departure was so emotionally draining. I went into automatic, doing what had to be done. I realize now that I did take some of my frustration out on my daughter. My mother recognized this early on and set me straight. I had relaxed control over both children, and I needed to reclaim it. Eventually, the kids and I were functioning normally, again.
At the 6-month point, I quit feeling sorry for us and changed my thinking. The hardest thing emotionally is the loss of companionship. I was very lonely and found myself grasping every opportunity to converse with another adult. I found myself drinking alcohol more frequently, not more, just one or two drinks each night.
His return was much more emotionally taxing than I anticipated. It took at least 3 months for the kids and me to get used to another adult making and enforcing some ofthe rules. I didn’t deal well with his disciplining of the children, and he seemed to be talking down to the children. It had been 18 months, and the three of us seemed to have grown and matured, but he returned at the same level he was at when he left. He resumed managing all bills and the checking account. It drove me nuts for a while! It seemed like when he had called me from over there almost every day, we really talked! He listened. At home he was returning to his old routine of avoiding conflict and controlling things. I was unwilling to go back to that relationship. We have had to work through a lot, and that probably should include counseling.
When asked to discuss how her relationships with family and friends changed during Mike’s deployment, Kathy noted several things that surprised her.
My father, who hates emotions, came with me to the “send off” and came to visit us every 3 months from his home in another state. Usually, on past visits, he wanted to be taken care of and entertained, but not during this time. He mowed, fixed things, winterized our home, and did everything that needed to be done. My mom watched the kids when I needed to be away for days at a time for work. I didn’t hear from my mother-in-law at all, but I didn’t before the deployment, either. No one from his family really stepped up to help. His little brother called more than usual, but never spent time with us. My siblings were supportive, my sister most. My brother did take my children to his home for 2 weeks over Christmas and made it an incredible holiday for all of us.
Friends … well, I really learned who my friends were. Most of those we believed to be friends before Mike left disappeared. Some we had never really done a lot with suddenly appeared and gave me tremendous support. When Mike returned, his old buddies started calling. I insisted that we had new friends, and he was understanding enough to change friendships, himself.
Mental Resources
At first it was difficult to go from two adults making decisions to one adult in a high-stress, emotional state solving problems. However, as time went on, I was more and more confident in solving problems myself, and I think that I actually grew and became more independent and better at decision making.
I became a very good time manager. I was forced to be more efficient. I think the hardest thing was being a working parent and wanting to spend as much time with the children as possible, but cleaning, mowing, laundry, cooking still had to be done. I simply decided to choose my battles. We ate out a lot, and we found more time to play together on the weekends.
Spiritual Resources
I am not a real spiritual person. I think through deployment you have to maintain a high level of trust and believe that our troops are well trained and that your spouse will make good decisions. I wasn’t able to even think about what if … I maintained a level of confidence that things would be OK and I had a greater appreciation for God. During this time, my 18-month-old neighbor was diagnosed with cancer. I couldn’t play the “poor me” card after that. I developed an ability to focus on the positives in life.
Although my husband is the religious member of my family, I continued to take my children to church each week. At first, it was nothing more than a hassle with a 2-year-old and a 3-year-old to watch and control. I got nothing out of the sermon. Over time, they became more manageable, and, although I did not receive support from the church, it was a nice quiet time to reflect.
Physical Resources
At first I was exhausted, but after about 6 months, my stamina improved. I did hit a wall at 12 months. I had had enough. I was frustrated and angry, and I wanted it to be over! We all stayed in very good health through this time. When the kids did get sick, I brought them to work or they went to a neighbor’s house. I felt neglectful, but I didn’t have a choice. Once I got sick, myself, and had to ask for help, but I actually was the most physically fit I have ever been during this time. Cooking for me and two little ones was easy. The kids and I walked every day.
Kathy and Mike did what had to be done and coped in the best ways available to them. Their resources expanded with increasing needs. Sources of support shifted and changed completely in some ways. They will never be able to return to the same relationships and decision-making style present before deployment. Time, circumstances, and priorities have changed their family unit markedly. The year following a service member’s return to civilian life will often determine the family’s ultimate adjustment.
The toll on families caught up in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan will be analyzed for years to come. Divorces in the military increased by 100% in 2004 (Skipp, Ephron, & Hastings, 2006). The army has spent millions of dollars on programming designed to positively enhance marital relationships of deployed men and women. All branches of the military have engaged in conscious efforts to strengthen support systems on both sides of the globe. Kathy appreciated this.
The army family support group meetings were helpful, and I really respected the army chaplains and their wisdom. It was a good place to air frustrations and anger, but it was only once a month.
Cultural Influences
Any study of individuals and families in the context of a global community could not ignore the enormous impact that culture and diversity have on the identification, use, and production of both material and human resources.
One cultural influence is family experience. When individuals marry, they bring with them a wide array of experiences from their own family of origin, including their unique cultural heritage, which ultimately influences their expectations for the new family. How their family managed resources will follow them into their newly formed relationship, and the two individuals will explore these experiences as they formulate their own unique way of managing resources.
Yuki and Eric have been married for 4 years. They are planning to begin a family soon. Eric announces that they must find a larger, two-bedroom apartment before a baby arrives. Yuki doesn’t understand this need. In her home country, Japan, it is not uncommon for infants to share their parents’ bed for the first few years.
Another important cultural influence on family resource management is worldview. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) developed a framework for comparing and contrasting the different value systems between and among different cultural groups. The assumptions underlying their work include the following:
· There is a limited number of common human problems for which all people at all times must find some solution. Most families, at one time or another, must match needs and resources to feed, clothe, educate, and protect members.
· Although there is variability in solutions of all the problems, it is neither limitless nor random, but is definitely variable within a range of possible solutions. Each family and each situation is unique; however, experiences have common factors between and among families.
· All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at all times, but are differentially preferred. Choices made by any family at any given time may differ from those of others because of cultural expectations and beliefs. (p. 10)
As a result of these different value frameworks, they identified five distinctive orientations that exist within any particular cultural group, yet differ between groups. These orientations are human nature, man and nature, time, activity, and relational.
The orientation of human nature may be viewed by a cultural group as evil, a mixture of good and evil, or basically good. Often, cultural practices are based on these beliefs. Consider the judicial system. The practice of imprisoning criminals for certain periods of time with rehabilitative treatment suggests a culture that believes that humans are basically good but can be misled. Religions that believe in original sin purport human nature as basically evil, with possible salvation through ritual.
The relationship between humans and nature is an orientation that can be categorized in three perspectives. Humans can be subjugated to, in harmony with, or have mastery over nature. Refusal of medical treatment is illustrative of a subjugation orientation. Air-conditioning and heating systems are used by many to gain mastery or control over the weather elements. Today, emerging concerns over environmental quality and sustainability of natural resources have forced a reconsideration of harmony between man and nature.
Every cultural group must deal with all three time orientations—past, present, and future—to maintain existence over time. The preference or dependence on a particular time orientation separates cultural groups. To participate in a financial savings plan implies that an individual is preparing for the future. Investing four or more years to obtain a college degree is another example of future-time orientation. Cultural groups that devote a great deal of time to the study of and the continued practicing of past rituals, art forms, and doctrine are reflective of past-time orientation.
Photo 1.3 Family traditions draw heavily from the concepts of Worldview.
The value placed on human activity is an orientation that also differs between cultural groups. Some focus on being or living only for the day. Others focus on becoming, searching and working for self-growth and improvement. A third orientation places more emphasis on accomplishments that are measurable by external standards. All three orientations may exist within any large group of people; however, the group as a whole shows a preference for one. Members who show evidence of that preferred activity are then deemed to be successful.
The last orientation identified to differentiate between cultures is that of human relations. Three different patterns emerge: lineal, collaborative, and individualistic. The lineal pattern is characterized by dominant group goals, a chain of command, and a commitment to maintaining the group over time. A collaborative pattern is reflected in the concept of a team. Someone operating from the individualistic pattern will place primary emphasis on personal goals and objectives and on personal autonomy.
How does this worldview framework impact family decision making? Each and every decision made by a family reflects cultural preferences at multiple levels. For instance, when a parent decides to participate in a college savings plan for his or her child, this decision reflects core beliefs that education is important, that sacrificing today for something that might come to be in the future is a worthy action, and that a college degree is an accomplishment viewed positively by the larger social group.
A human service professional operating from his or her own worldview will find that his or her ability to serve individuals and families functioning within another orientation is problematic. When an individual is devoted to collaborative relationships (i.e., family, gang, religion), he or she will not consider solutions that involve competitive actions or individualistic accomplishments. If a parent believes that children are inherently good or bad, behavior modification plans will be viewed as illogical. A family struggling for many generations with intense poverty may see no value in saving or planning for the future when surviving each day requires so much of its resource base.
As Payne (1998) states,
[T]he role of the educator or social worker or employer is not to save the individual, but rather to offer a support system, role models, and opportunities to learn, which will increase the likelihood of the person’s success. Ultimately, the choice always belongs to the individual. (p. 149)
Awareness and understanding of cultural differences or different worldviews provide the human service professional with increased options and heightened objectivity.
Table 1.1Selection of Family Housing: Same Ages, Income, Location, and Educational Levels
WORLDVIEW
Using the structured form below, analyze the following family decisions in terms of differing worldview perspectives:
· A dual-career couple decides that the wife will leave the workforce until the youngest child enters middle school.
· Your neighbor refuses to use weed killer on his or her lawn because it is harmful to the environment.
· A 16-year-old high school student drops out of school to take a full-time job to help support his or her family during an economic crisis.
· A high school graduate decides to attend a 4-year college instead of entering the workforce immediately.
Table 1.2 Worldview Applications
MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES
The study of families and behaviors of individuals and family units depends on research methods and disciplines that provide a variety of perspectives. The field of family studies integrates existing theory, new research findings, and cross-disciplinary works into a framework for understanding the complexities of family study. Using that framework, professionals are able to engage in further research or practical application of knowledge in the field. Although the following discussion illustrates a few specific disciplines that contribute to this knowledge base, several others are possible contributors over time.
Psychology
In ancient Greek, the word psyche meant soul or mind, and logos was the study of something. Psychology, as a field, has evolved into an academic and applied field focusing on the study of the mind and behavior. In the applied sense, psychology also refers to the use of the knowledge accumulated through that study to mental illness and behavioral analysis. Psychologists study mental processes and behavior of individuals, alone or in a group, not on the group itself. Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society, with a focus on the study of the social interactions of people, groups, and entire societies. This academic discipline emerged in the early 1800s and evolved through that century as struggles for global leadership emerged. Scientific methods were used to understand how and why groups come together and continue across time. From this inquiry, theories about social rules and governing structures give insight on why individuals are motivated to be a part of groups. In an applied form, sociological research benefits educators, lawmakers, administrators, families, and others who seek resolution of social problems and creation of public policy.
Social Psychology
The ancient philosopher Plato believed that humans organize themselves into groups and form governments to solidify their groups because they cannot achieve all of their individual goals alone (Goethals, 2003). Through the ages, students have pondered the question, how much of our behavior is determined by external constraints vs. internal drives? Triplett (1898) put social psychology into the realm of academic discipline by conducting studies that focused on the impact of other people on the individual. Allport’s (1935) textbook, Social Psychology, grounded the study of social psychology in scientific methods. Many studies have focused on the development of norms within groups and the transmission of those norms across groups—interpersonal influence.
Social psychology is a field devoted to understanding how individuals impact the groups they associate with and how groups impact their individual members. Research within this discipline includes studies of marriage, religion, and parenting, as well as adolescent behavior.
Cultural Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. The cultural branch of anthropology seeks to make sense of difference or variation among humans. Because culture is acquired through learning, people living in different, separate places or under differing circumstances will develop different ways of thinking about similar things. This belief is exemplified by the earlier discussion of worldview.
Although understanding the differences among cultures is important to understanding how families manage their resources, it is also important to this discipline to seek universalities among humans across cultural and geographic boundaries. Are beliefs and behaviors completely learned, or is there a biological, hereditary basis to them? Anthropologists have surmised that people adapt to their environments in nongenetic ways—through culture. Current concern for the global environment and international relationships has redirected study in this field to the tensions among cultures.
Economics
The study of economics is not only about business, but also about human behavior within existing structures of production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services. As a science, it functions to predict and explain the consequences of choices made by consumers and producers. Economics is a quantified field of research depending on numerical methods of analysis.
Microeconomics studies individual agents, like households and businesses. Macroeconomics focuses on the economy as an entirety. Key concepts include supply, demand, competition, and pricing. The research and models derived from the study of economics help explain how families identify and evaluate resources in their decision-making processes.
Behavioral economics is an emerging field of study that focuses on application of scientific principles to human and social dimensions of decision making. Research questions seek to answer how consumer decisions impact pricing and the allocation of resources in a society.
Biology
The field of biology is the study or science of living things. Family resource management derives important information on reproduction, physical health, and safety from biological findings, and implements biological research methods and theories to answer questions about how the environment and humans interact. Genetics is an associated field that provides families with guidance when making important reproductive and health decisions. Medicine is also a related field that plays an important part in family decisions and resource allocation.
Professionals in family studies use multidisciplinary research methods and integrate research generated by all of these fields, which allows a multifaceted exploration of topics. For instance, if we want to understand maternal employment and its impact on the family, we can approach the question from multiple frameworks. Psychologists might focus on the emotional and cognitive impacts on family members—parents and children. Sociologists may consider the motivations that lead to the mother’s participation in the workforce and how social expectations influence that behavior.
Social psychologists may view the topic in terms of how employment impacts the female’s self-esteem or power base, or how females impact the working environment they occupy. Cultural anthropology might be more interested in how maternal employment participation varies between and among different cultures and across time. Economics would be interested in how maternal employment impacts resources available to families and how that, in turn, impacts their consumption. Another topic of interest to economists is the potential for increased production through more fully participating adult female labor pools. Biology might study the issue from a physical perspective. The spread of contagious diseases through on-the-job contact or within childcare centers might be of interest.
In combination, these disciplines provide us with a holistic view of family resource management. All are important to the study and understanding of family behavior.
SUMMARY
The family unit has been and continues to be the basic unit of society. As such an integral part of the larger social system, the family is impacted by all social, economic, political, and environmental changes. Thus, the family is dynamic in nature, responding and adapting to change. To allow such flexibility, families must engage in the management process, using basic decision-making tools and accessing necessary resources to maintain over time.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
1. Why and when is it necessary to create limiting definitions of the family?
2. Other than money, how many resources can you list that would be important in the management of families?
3. How have culture and worldview influenced your decision to study family resource management?
4. Individuals and families use the basic decision-making steps for even small situations. Trace your most recent eating experience through the process.
5. Using the worldview framework in this chapter, determine your personal combination of the five dimensions.
6. Marriage and divorce are two important topics in this field. How might researchers in economics and social psychology differ in the way they approach these topics? Psychology and sociology?
7. Book : Tami James Moore & Sylvia M. Asay “Family Resource Management”
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Within the Discussion Board area, write 300–500 words that respond to the following questions with your thoughts, ideas, and comments. This will be the foundation for future discussions by your classmates. Be substantive and clear, and use examples to reinforce your ideas.
For this Discussion Board, please complete the following:
Employee compensation and benefits are a key way that companies are able to attract talented employees. To design a competitive compensation and benefits package, HR professionals choose from an array of salary options and benefits providers. There are also legal considerations that must be considered. Consider a small company of 200 employees, and with your fellow classmates, please discuss the following:
(Training and employee development )
Within the Discussion Board area, write 400–600 words that respond to the following questions with your thoughts, ideas, and comments. This will be the foundation for future discussions by your classmates. Be substantive and clear, and use examples to reinforce your ideas.
What is the purpose of conducting a training needs analysis?
Describe the process of a training needs analysis.
Use examples, either from your personal experience or from research, of the types of training needs analyses that organizations use to define training options.
How do organizations use the process to determine the best approach to designing training?
What employment laws need to be considered to prevent discrimination?
What kinds of benefits would you offer to employees, and what benefits providers would you use?
What strategy would you use to ensure that employee salaries attract the best talent?
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1.table on the right contains Labour Force Survey data by gender Nova Scotia in May of 2019. Determine the relative labour market performance of males and females based upon the data given. Would consider this to be a temparal or cross-sectional analysis? Explain your answer.
2.Use a graph to explain the costs and benefits of obtaining a post- secondary degree. If a female (or anyone) had an interruption in their career how would this affect the graph and the cost-benefit analysis?
3. Explain the two most recent retirement trends discussed in class and why retirees have changed their behaviour. How are these trends related to pension plans and the labour market?
4. Explain why income inequality is an important issue and how we measure the relative level of income inequality. Explain two policies which are designed to reduce income inequality and explain how we know they are working
5.Explain “points system” that Canada uses to implement its immigration policy. What is the goal of the points system? Explain the two variables which Canada can adjust on its immigration policy?
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Freshwater is a vital resource. Is it possible to use icebergs as a source of freshwater? 2. What obstacles – technological, social, environmental & political – do you foresee for such an endeavor? (Make sure to mention at least one technoligical, one social, one environmental and one political obstacle.) This topic is for a physical science 110 course, the discussion answer has to be in our own words, no plagiarism allowed thanks.
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Please read carefully instructions. This is a master level writing. See attached the chapters of the book and article to do the Summary of a Research Report worksheet and data analysis.
When reviewing a research study, you must have the knowledge and skills to accurately read and interpret all parts of a research study. The goal for this assignment is for you to read the entire article, and accurately identify and describe the various sections of the study report. Use the information in chapters from prior weeks as well as this week to help you accurately summarize the study.
Select one quantitative research article from this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings or an article from Appendix A-H of Resource Manual for Nursing Research.
-Complete the Summary of a Research Report worksheet. Fill out the form in its entirety and include the following details in the appropriate sections of the form:
-Identify the type of design that is used in the study.
Using Table 9.4 and Table 9.5 of Nursing Research locate the type of design described in the article.
-Compare the design description in the study to the one in the tables and determine if there is any difference between the two.
-Describe the data analysis to include specific statistical tests and the reason for selecting the specific tests for the study. If there is a test of a hypothesis, what are the results of the data analysis?
Review Box 10.1: Guidelines for Critiquing Design Elements and Study Validity in Quantitative Studies on Nursing Research.
-Develop a data analysis. If there is a test of a hypothesis, what are the results of the data analysis? Do not simply identify a few words by the author(s) referring to the major findings under discussion or conclusions.
Include a full reference for the article you selected using APA guidelines.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your Summary of a Research Report worksheet and your data analysis.
attachment SummaryofaResearchReport.docx attachment Professorinstructions.docx attachment NursingResearchTABLE9.4and9.5.docx attachment BOX10.1GuidelinesforCritiquingDesign.docx attachment ArticleElectronicRe Please read carefully instructions. This is a master level writing. See attached the chapters of the book and article to do the Summary of a Research Report worksheet and data analysis.
When reviewing a research study, you must have the knowledge and skills to accurately read and interpret all parts of a research study. The goal for this assignment is for you to read the entire article, and accurately identify and describe the various sections of the study report. Use the information in chapters from prior weeks as well as this week to help you accurately summarize the study.
Select one quantitative research article from this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings or an article from Appendix A-H of Resource Manual for Nursing Research.
-Complete the Summary of a Research Report worksheet. Fill out the form in its entirety and include the following details in the appropriate sections of the form:
-Identify the type of design that is used in the study.
Using Table 9.4 and Table 9.5 of Nursing Research locate the type of design described in the article.
-Compare the design description in the study to the one in the tables and determine if there is any difference between the two.
-Describe the data analysis to include specific statistical tests and the reason for selecting the specific tests for the study. If there is a test of a hypothesis, what are the results of the data analysis?
Review Box 10.1: Guidelines for Critiquing Design Elements and Study Validity in Quantitative Studies on Nursing Research.
-Develop a data analysis. If there is a test of a hypothesis, what are the results of the data analysis? Do not simply identify a few words by the author(s) referring to the major findings under discussion or conclusions.
Include a full reference for the article you selected using APA guidelines.
Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your Summary of a Research Report worksheet and your data analysis.
Locate an online resource that addresses the influence of the private sector on healthcare policy. Include the following information in your discussion response: Give a brief summary of the website or
Home » Locate an online resource that addresses the influence of the private sector on healthcare policy. Include the following information in your discussion response: Give a brief summary of the website or
Locate an online resource that addresses the influence of the private sector on healthcare policy. Include the following information in your discussion response:
Give a brief summary of the website or article that you find, showcasing how this organization within the private sector influences healthcare policy.
What aspects of the private sector’s influence are specifically mentioned? Did you note any points or connections similar to what was covered in the assigned readings? Support your answer.
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Choose any One of the topics from the following list: • Scarce resources- which resource and in which country/industry are seen as scarce and what is being done in the industry or country. What substitutes have been used to overcome this problem! • Micro economics – Choose any industry and discuss the reforms done or needed in that industry. • Demand and supply of a product of your choice and factors that affect the demand and supply sides of the market. • Market structures like Monopoly, Oligopoly and Monopolistic competition in Australia.
Instruction:
HI5003 Economics for Business Tri2 2016 (More in your unit outline) Topics for Individual essay DUE Class 6
Choose any One of the topics from the following list:
• Scarce resources- which resource and in which country/industry are seen as scarce and what is being done in the industry or country. What substitutes have been used to overcome this problem!
• Micro economics – Choose any industry and discuss the reforms done or needed in that industry.
• Demand and supply of a product of your choice and factors that affect the demand and supply sides of the market.
• Market structures like Monopoly, Oligopoly and Monopolistic competition in Australia.
Structure of the Essay
• Introduction – which topic 200 words • Body- Discuss the topic in the article and with some theory -700 words • Conclusion 100 words
Note= – More marks for research – choosing a good article on something specific topic from the above list – There is no need to explain the theory/concepts in the essay on its own – More marks for application and your comments on the topic – You need to provide a link to the article with your essay. Also attach the safe assignment report with your essay, if a hard copy is required. – Upload the soft copy on BB by Fri 5pm week 6.
HI5003 Economics for Business
Tri2 2016
(More in your unit outline)
Topics for Individual essay DUE Class 6
Choose any One of the topics from the following list:
Scarce resources- which resource and in which country/industry are seen as scarce and what is being done in the industry or country. What substitutes have been used to overcome this problem!
Micro economics – Choose any industry and discuss the reforms done or needed in that industry.
Demand and supply of a product of your choice and factors that affect the demand and supply sides of the market.
Market structures like Monopoly, Oligopoly and Monopolistic competition in Australia.
Structure of the Essay
Introduction – which topic 200 words
Body- Discuss the topic in the article and with some theory -700 words
Conclusion 100 words
Note=
More marks for research – choosing a good article on something specific topic from the above list
There is no need to explain the theory/concepts in the essay on its own
More marks for application and your comments on the topic
You need to provide a link to the article with your essay. Also attach the safe assignment report with your essay, if a hard copy is required.
Upload the soft copy on BB by Fri 5pm week 6.
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Electrical power distribution would not be possible if there were no sources of energy to create electricity. The main plants that generate this electricity are fueled by the primary resources (fossil fuel, nuclear fuel, and hydroelectric). These are essential resources.
For your midterm exam, write a 750– 1000 word paper on the use of one of the primary resources (fossil fuel, nuclear fuel, or hydroelectric). Include the role that your chosen resource plays in power generation, along with any pros or cons of its use. Reference at least two sources in addition to your textbook and format your paper according to APA standards, 6th edition, including title and reference pages.
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This paper accounts for 20% of your grade and is graded according to the SBT Essay Exam Rubric.
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HI5003 Economics for Business Tri2 2016 (More in your unit outline) Topics for Individual essay DUE Class 6 Choose any One of the topics from the following list: • Scarce resources- which resource and in which country/industry are seen as scarce and what is being done in the industry or country. What substitutes have been used to overcome this problem! • Micro economics – Choose any industry and discuss the reforms done or needed in that industry. • Demand and supply of a product of your choice and factors that affect the demand and supply sides of the market. • Market structures like Monopoly, Oligopoly and Monopolistic competition in Australia. Structure of the Essay • Introduction – which topic 200 words • Body- Discuss the topic in the article and with some theory -700 words • Conclusion 100 words Note= – More marks for research – choosing a good article on something specific topic from the above list – There is no need to explain the theory/concepts in the essay on its own – More marks for application and your comments on the topic – You need to provide a link to the article with your essay. Also attach the safe assignment report with your essay, if a hard copy is required. – Upload the soft copy on BB by Fri 5pm week 6.
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